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retrieved. Some strategies for improving LTM include elaborative encoding, relating information
to the self, making use of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect, overlearning, and being
aware of context- and state-dependent retrieval effects.
Memories that are stored in LTM are not isolated but rather are linked together into categories
and schemas. Schemas are important in part because they help us encode and retrieve
information by providing an organizational structure for it.
The ability to maintain information in LTM involves a gradual strengthening of the connections
among the neurons in the brain, known as long-term potentiation (LTP). The hippocampus is
important in explicit memory, the cerebellum is important in implicit memory, and the amygdala
is important in emotional memory. A number of neurotransmitters are important in consolidation
and memory. Evidence for the role of different brain structures in different types of memories
comes in part from case studies of patients who suffer from amnesia.
Cognitive biases are errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of
cognitive processes. These biases are caused by the overuse of schemas, the reliance on salient
and cognitive accessible information, and the use of rule-of-thumb strategies known as
heuristics. These biases include errors in source monitoring, the confirmation bias, functional
fixedness, the misinformation effect, overconfidence, and counterfactual thinking. Understanding
the potential cognitive errors we frequently make can help us make better decisions and engage
in more appropriate behaviors.