period is crucial in reducing dysfunctional labor turnover; job training should only
begin after induction. Operative training involves explaining why a task is per-
formed, how it should be performed, and providing an opportunity for practice.
Two methods were traditionally employed: ‘sitting by Nellie’ (Crichton 1968 ) and
training centers. Sitting by Nellie (learning with an experienced employee) is still
widely used and eVective where experienced employees are taught training tech-
niques. The advantage of training centers using full-time professional trainers may
be oVset by problems of training transfer when the trainee moves to the work
station, either because of the exigencies of the work process or diVerences between
theory and practice.
Evaluation is intended to provide feedback for improving future provision,
informing senior management for strategic decisions on training expenditure,
and encouraging trainees to reXect on their experiences. According to the seminal
work of Kirkpatrick ( 1967 ), training can be evaluated at four levels. Reaction-level
evaluation provides information on what participants thought of a training pro-
gram and is of limited value. Learning-level evaluation is concerned with the
eVectiveness of the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through training.
Behavioral-level evaluation is concerned with how well skills or behaviors have
been transferred to the job, according to participants, superiors, and subordinates.
Results-level evaluation, measuring the impact of training on the organization’s
return on investment, cost savings, quality changes, and improvements in work
output, is the most valuable but most challenging due to diYculties in attributing
performance improvements to training interventions.
16.4 Development
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The key distinction between development and training is that development
involves a wider range of activities with less speciWc ends than training. Training
is designed with speciWc learning outcomes that form the basis for examination of
the skills acquired: an operator who has received the requisite trainingshould be
able touse a milling machine to produce test pieces within the tolerance required,
for example. Development is focused more on the individual than the occupation
and is concerned with longer-term personal growth and career movement: in
France, the terme ́volution professionnelleis used in preference tode ́veloppement,
hence emphasizing the ends rather than the means.
Development is also related to the idea of social and economic progress because
developing workforce skills has a major impact on national economies (Zidan
2001 ); where economies are undergoing a process of development, transition, or
training, development, and competence 331