Rachel Wynberg 63either in preparations in the form of raw or powdered material or as standardised
extracts in the form of capsules, tablets, tinctures and ointments. The main
active molecules are the iridoid glycosides: harpagoside (the main compound in
the fresh and dried root), harpagide, procumbide and procumboside, all of
which show analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties (Czygan et al. 1977).
Other potentially active chemical constituents include phenols, phytosterols
and flavonoids (Ziller and Franz 1979; Burger 1987). A number of studies have
demonstrated the efficacy of devil’s claw as an anti-inflammatory (e.g., Lanhers
et al. 1992; Chrubasik et al. 1996), and its properties are considered comparable
to cortisone and phenylbutazone but without the accompanying side effects
(Moussard et al. 1992). This, combined with the proven safety and efficacy of
the plant and its recognition by the international pharmacopoeia (Blumenthal
1998), has led to a rapid escalation in demand in devil’s claw, far surpassing
historical levels of use.Trade history
Devil’s Claw has been traded internationally for some 50 years, most exports
going from Namibia to Germany. Although the trade has been erratic, there has
over the years been a steady increase in export volume, which in turn has led to
an expansion of the area from which material is sourced to include Botswana
and South Africa as well as the more remote parts of Namibia. The past five
years in particular have been distinguished by a three- to six-fold increase in
the amount of Harpagophytum traded, reaching a level of over 600 tons exported
from Namibia alone in 1998 and 1999, and nearly 700 tons in 2001 (Wynberg
forthcoming). In 2001, 92% of the trade originated from Namibia, 5% from
Botswana, and 3% from South Africa. Importing countries include Germany
(predominantly), France, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the United Kingdom,
the United States, South Korea, Japan, Belgium and Brazil (Wynberg forthcoming).
On average, the raw material is exported for US$1.40/kg to US$1.80/kg, while
the finished product retails for approximately US$140/kg. Harvesters typically
receive US$0.50/kg to US$1.20/kg (Wynberg forthcoming).The production-to-consumption system: models of
commercialisation
A complex set of relationships characterises trade in Harpagophytum, and
trade chains vary considerably from country to country and region to region.
Three general models of trade can, however, be discerned at the local level
(Wynberg forthcoming). The first and most prevalent pattern, which I call the
‘Free Enterprise’ model, typifies the situation in Namibia and involves up to
6,000 harvesters of Harpagophytum supplying local traders, who in turn supply
four or five main exporting companies (Figure 3). Material may be purchased
and resold several times by local traders before being sold to one of the
exporters. Local traders are typically urban-based, employed entrepreneurs
who have the benefit both of owning transport and of established relationships
with Harpagophytum exporters. Although this model has the greatest outreach,
harvesters receive the lowest proportion of financial benefits—0.36% of the
retail price.04devilcslaw.P65 63 22/12/2004, 11:04