A History of India, Third Edition

THE GREAT ANCIENT EMPIRES

refers to the freedom of the rural people which is in contrast with a later
period when land grants often specifically mention the people who will till
the soil for the grantee. The Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the
caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the
treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very
similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would
contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in
India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest.

Kalidasa and classical Sanskrit literature

The fame of the Guptas rests to a great extent on the flowering of classical
Sanskrit literature under their patronage. It was reported in later ages that
Chandragupta II had a circle of poets at his court who were known as the
‘Nine Jewels’. The greatest jewel among them was Kalidasa who excelled as
a dramatist as well as a composer of epic poems. Among his greatest works
are the two epic poems Kumarasambhava and Raghuvamsha, the lyrical
poem Meghaduta and the great drama, Shakuntala. Although we know so
much about his magnificent work, we know next to nothing about the poet
himself. Indian scholars earlier surmised that he was a contemporary of the
legendary ruler Vikramaditya of Ujjain who instituted a new era beginning
in 58 BC. But some references to astronomy in Kalidasa’s work which show
the influence of Greek and Roman ideas seem to indicate that the poet could
not have lived before the early centuries AD. Furthermore there is some
internal evidence in his work which would seem to corroborate the
assumption that he was a contemporary of Chandragupta II. The title of his
epic poem Vikramorvashiya is supposed to be an allusion to Chandragupta’s
second name Vikramaditya, and the Kumarasambhava which praises the
birth of the war god, Kumara, may refer to Chandragupta’s son and
successor, Kumaragupta. The fourth book of the Raghuvamsha which
glorifies the mythical dynasty of King Rama could be a eulogy of the deeds
of Samudragupta. This transformation of history into myth was in keeping
with the programme of the Gupta rulers. Whereas in earlier periods the ruler
was seen as executing the immutable laws of a cosmic world order, the
Gupta rulers were praised as gods on earth bringing about peace and
prosperity by means of their heroic deeds.
Another category of Sanskrit literature which is of lesser literary merit
than the great classical works but has nevertheless made an enormous
impact on Indian life are the Puranas. These ‘Old (Purana) Works’ have
earlier sources but they most probably attained their final shape in the Age
of the Guptas. The Purana contain collections of myths, philosophical
dialogues, ritual prescriptions, but also genealogies of North and Central
Indian dynasties up to the early Guptas. They are therefore also important
as historical sources. For the various sects of Hinduism they provide a