Quite a number of basic principles to guide ethical
behavior have been suggested over the years. Some of
these principles come from religious traditions, while oth-
ers come from philosophers and others concerned with
ethics. The ancient Hippocratic Oath advises physicians to
“do no harm.” The Ten Commandments of the Hebrew
Scriptures forbid killing, adultery, stealing, bearing false
witness, and coveting. Most world religions advocate the
same ethic as Christianity’s Golden Rule: Treat others as
you would like them to treat you.
Some ethical issues are viewed differently
depending upon the culture in which they arise. For
example, in some Islamic cultures charging interest and
drinking alcohol are unethical while polygamy is
permissible. In some cultures, bribery is not considered
unethical; it is just the way you get things done. In cul-
tures where there is respect for the law, breaking the law
is considered unethical. However, the reverse—if it is
not illegal, it is ethical—is usually not an accepted
interpretation.
In some cases, the situation is so complex that it is
not immediately obvious what action is ethical. When
there are several interests that are affected in different
ways by the decision, one needs to carefully consider the
impact on all those affected. Here allthe parties who will
be affected by the action must be identified and the conse-
quences for each party delineated. Then it is tempting to
argue that the action is ethically justified if the good out-
weighs the bad. However, when you harm some parties in
order to benefit others, it is usually questionable. Most
people would consider it unethical if, for example, all the
benefits go to the decision maker at the expense of others
who are harmed.
In these complex situations, we should remember
that there usually are a number of possible alternative
actions—not just “do it” or “not do it.” Especially in the
case of developing and using IT, we can often devise alter-
natives that obtain adequate benefits while minimizing the
harmful effects. And we need to be sure that we identify
and include all those who will be affected by the system,
not just those who will benefit from it. We might be
inclined to include ourselves, those we know, members of
our organization, members of our community, or members
of our segment of society, while excluding “outsiders”
from consideration. Ignoring affected parties is a common
flaw in ethical reasoning.
Despite occasional problems, ethical reasoning is
seldom difficult. If we recognize that there is an ethical
issue involved and take some time to think it through, we
usually have little difficulty knowing what is ethical and
what is unethical. Problems arise, however, when we face
decisions where being ethical has a cost. How we deal with
these situations is what distinguishes the ethical person or
organization from the unethical ones.Social Issues
In addition to driving our economy and affecting how we
work and what jobs we do, IT affects how we relate to one
another, how we learn, and not only how we access infor-
mation but also what information we obtain. Overall, IT
has been a very positive contributor to our welfare, but it
raises some troubling questions.
Today we are easily connected to one another
through electronic media such as cell phones, e-mail,
instant messaging, Twitter, and Facebook so that we can
stay in close contact with and share information with more
and more individuals than ever before. Does this lead to
more healthy and fulfilling relationships than we had
when most of our interaction was face-to-face, or does it
lead to more and more superficial ties? Or can we have
both more and better quality relationships through the
judicious use of these technologies?
Children are spending more and more time alone
watching television, playing video games, and sitting at
computer screens and less and less time in traditional play
activities with playmates. Play has an important role in
physical and emotional development, and over the past few
years, childhood obesity has become a national health
issue in the United States. Furthermore, all of this exposure
to intense stimuli seems to be resulting in decreased atten-
tion spans of our children in the school environment.
Recent studies have demonstrated that prolonged
exposure to the intense information overload resulting from
the constant use of electronic media can alter the develop-
ment of the brain and even rewire adult brains. What will be
the impact, if any, on our society if these trends continue?
Not too long ago, the educational technology used by
most teachers was limited to overhead projectors, slide pro-
jectors, and movie projectors that supplemented the black-
board that had been the mainstay for generations. Today the
digital revolution has provided a host of alternatives that are
changing the way education is delivered by educators and
pursued by students. Distance education opportunities
allow students to obtain advanced degrees from anywhere
in the world at one’s own pace and without even visiting the
degree-granting institution. There are obvious advantages
to many students, but it also raises the question: Is the
expense and inefficiency of the traditional residential uni-
versity justified in today’s technological world?
Finally, it is clear that traditional print media such as
newspapers, magazines, and books are losing out to digital
media. Newspapers and magazines are going out of business
right and left, and the Kindle and iPad are putting pressure578 Part IV • The Information Management System