RELATIVISM
196Plotinus all held to some form of reincar-
nation. Platonic reincarnation in particu-
lar is characterized by a dualism of soul /
mind and body with the goal of release of
the soul / mind from the body. Indian
thought also offers various methods of
seeking release from the cycle of succes-
sive rebirths (samsara), since it is held
that these continuous rebirths are charac-
terized by a type of suffering.
When ethical considerations are tied
to it (e.g., when karma is accepted), rein-
carnation allows one to extend the frame
beyond this life for questions about
justice and appropriate rewards and pun-
ishments. Unfair advantages or disadvan-
tages in this life might be the fruits of
previous good / evil actions one has done
in a previous life, and similarly punish-
ments and rewards for actions done in
this life might not be realized in this life
but in later reincarnations. Reincarnation
need not be immediate between lives;
some versions of reincarnation assume
waiting periods between rebirths of a
few days or even many years. See also
TRANSMIGRATION.
RELATIVISM. The general system of
thinking that there is no objective, impar-
tial, or universal standard by which
something can be judged. A conceptual
relativist is a nonrealist who holds that
truth and falsehood are dependent upon
frameworks. This is closely related to per-
spectivalism. For a conceptual relativist,
the thesis that water is H 2 O may be true,
but only relative to the conceptual frame-
work of atomic theory. Different frames
of reference may produce convergent
accounts; for example, a religious concep-
tual framework may see water differently
than a secular one. Moral relativism is
opposed to moral realism and holds that
moral truths depend upon the commu-
nity or individuals involved. Thus, in a
community that finds slavery natural
and permissible, slavery is (relative to that
community) natural and permissible.
Critics argue that moral relativism is
unable to account for what seems like the
fact that communities can be wrong; for
example, even if all persons (enslaved and
free) in a community thought that the
human bondage of slavery was just, it
does not follow that slavery is just. See
also ETHICS.RELIGION. Considerable controversy
surrounds the definition of “religion.”
Definitions that explicitly identify the
belief in a God as an essential feature of
religion seem too narrow, as that would
exclude some forms of Buddhism. A
popular definition of “religion” today is
through giving examples, e.g., a religion is
a tradition such as Judaism, Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, or Buddhism, or those
traditions like them. An alternative defi-
nition which aims at giving greater
guidance is as follows: A religion is a body
of teachings and prescribed practices
about an ultimate, sacred reality or state
of being that calls for reverence or awe,