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SACRAMENT. Sacraments are liturgical
rites that are both sensible signs and
means by which divine grace is commu-
nicated to humans partaking in those
rites. Sacraments were defined by
Augustine as the “visible form of invisible
grace,” by Thomas of Aquinas as “a sign of
a sacred thing inasmuch as it sanctifies
humans,” and by Richard Hooker as
“outward and visible signs of an inward
and spiritual grace.” The word is derived
from Latin sacramentum, which is a
translation of the Greek mysterion.
Christian churches do not agree on the
exact number or nature of the sacraments.
The Roman Catholic Church acknowl-
edges seven sacraments: Baptism, Confir-
mation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme
Unction (a.k.a. “Last Rites”), Orders, and
Matrimony. Many Protestant churches
name only two, Baptism and Eucharist,
following the Augustinian definition of
sacraments as visible signs, the others
lacking a visible element. Some churches
acknowledge no sacraments or do not
enumerate them.
Sacramental theology raises certain
philosophical questions about human

nature, the nature of grace, and the

means of its communication. Thomas of

Aquinas effectively married Aristotelian

hylomorphism (i.e., the doctrine that

distinguishes the matter and form of a

thing) to Christian theology resulting

in the doctrine of transubstantiation.

Sacraments are closely connected to

the mystery of the incarnation, which

is often taken to be the basis or example

of all other sacraments. Many recent the-

ologies prefer a symbolic, rather than a

metaphysical, account of sacraments,

in which sacraments are a means of

symbolic participation in the mystery of

the incarnation.

SACRED. See HOLINESS.

SACRIFICE. From the Latin sacra facere

or “making holy.” One can distinguish

between the ritual of offering, usually an

animal, and symbolic or figurative uses of

the word. The first sense is interesting to

philosophers in terms of anthropology

or philosophical theology. The extended