UTILITARIANISM235of being human. Christian philosophers
have differed about whether Christ died
for each human being as individuals or
for a universal.
UPANISHADS. Philosophical discourses
at the end of the Vedas. See also HINDU-
ISM and VEDANTA.
UTILITARIANISM. A form of conse-
quentialism, utilitarians measure good
and evil, right and wrong, in terms of
maximizing some end such as happiness,
pleasure, or the satisfaction of prefer-
ences. There is a difference between act
utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism.
According to act utilitarianism, an act is
morally right if there is no other act
available to the agent that will produce
greater well-being. According to rule util-
itarianism, an act is right if there is no
alternative act that conforms to a right
rule, and a right rule is such that confor-
mity to it will produce maximal utility or
well-being. Utilitarianism is distinct from
egoism and may even require the heroic
sacrifice of the agent. If the end to be
sought is very general, as in pleasure or
the minimization of pain, utilitarianism
may justify ambitious practices of popu-
lation growth or a re-examination of
current use of animals for food, and so
on. Utilitarianism faces objections in the
name of justice; e.g., might cases arise
when utilitarianism would warrant unjust
punishment?