Rumba Performance and the Politics of Place in the Era of Cultural Tourism 397
formances also contain a high degree of spontaneity and improvisa-
tion.
In an attempt to highlight the prevalence of rumba performance in
non-professional contexts, Dutch scholar Paul Van Nispen presents
his own classification of rumba performance in Havana, which
includes rumba de barrio, rumba de concierto, rumba religiosa and rumba
turística (Van Nispen 2003: 35-38). Rumba de barrio (neighborhood
rumba) is his equivalent of Daniel’s “spontaneous rumba,” and has
the following characteristics: it constitutes the oldest and most tradi-
tional context for rumba, it is usually performed in socially marginal-
ized Afro-Cuban neighborhoods—either on the street, in a private
home, or in solares^1 —and there are no fixed roles in terms of who can
play or sing, nor major distinctions between musicians and the audi-
ence. Van Nispen theorizes rumba de concierto (concert rumba) much in
the same way as Daniel’s “prepared rumba,” as an organized event
that can be performed on a theater stage or in a hotel, or nightclub/
cabaret, where there is a clear distinction between the professional
performers and the audience, most of whom are Cubans. Rumba religi-
osa (religious rumba), a less common variant, takes place within the
context of religious ceremonies—usually those associated with Yor-
uba-derived Santería or Espiritismo^2 —and are usually held in a private
home. At these events the majority of the public is Cuban and initi-
ated into at least one Afro-Cuban religion, and the musicians are usu-
ally hired through the informal economy (they may or may not be
professional musicians). Finally, Van Nispen’s fourth category is rumba
turística (tourist-oriented rumba), which he describes as similar to
rumba de concierto in that the professional groups who play in the for-
mer category also tend to play in the latter, and the venues are often
the same for both types of rumba—hotels, nightclubs, or discotecas.- Solares are small urban housing complexes with a group of small houses/shacks
arranged around a central, common patio area. - Espiritismo (Spiritism) is a religious movement stemming from traditional Christia-
nity that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century in the United States, and was soon after
disseminated to Cuba and other parts of the Spanish Caribbean, where it is still widely
practiced. It is based on the idea of communicating with the souls/spirits of the dead
through a medium, similar to what we might call, in American popular culture, a séance.