Encyclopedia of Buddhism

Bells, gongs, drums, horns, and other instruments are
used to provide rhythm and emphasis. In East Asia a
common accoutrement is a hollowed-out piece of
wood that is hit with a padded stick to produce reso-
nant thumps setting the pace. Round in shape, it is cov-
ered with fish scales and is called the “wooden fish”
because fish do not close their eyes even when they
sleep. In shape and sound, the instrument makes a
point about mindfulness.

Chanting and ritual give shape to abstract doc-
trines, moral values, individual concerns, and com-
munal identity. They provide structures through
which important transactions take place. Clerical and
lay participants sing praises, submit petitions, make
confessions, request absolutions, present dedications,
give offerings, receive blessings, and transfer the merit
of the ritual to others, often the deceased. Nearly all
Buddhists seek their highest spiritual—and often
worldly—aspirations through ritual means. A few tra-
ditions, such as Jo
do Shinshu
in Japan, deny that
chanting and ritual are mechanisms for salvation, but
even in this case, believers fervently chant the nen-
butsunot as a ritual means for gaining REBIRTHin the
pure land but as an expression of gratitude for having
already been saved by the grace of Amita
bha.

See also:Buddha
nusmrti (Recollection of the Bud-
dha); Entertainment and Performance; Etiquette;
Language, Buddhist Philosophy of; Meditation; Merit
and Merit-Making; Mudra
and Visual Imagery; Nen-
butsu (Chinese, Nianfo; Korean, Yo ̆ ̆mbul)

Bibliography

Kalupahana, David, ed. Buddhist Thought and Ritual.St. Paul,
MN: Paragon House, 1991.

Lopez, Donald S., ed. Buddhism in Practice.Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1995.

Nhat Hahn, Thich, comp. Plum Village Chanting and Recitation
Book.Berkeley, CA: Parallax, 2000.

Wong, Deborah Anne. Sounding the Center: History and Aes-
thetics in Thai Buddhist Performance.Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2001.

GEORGEJ. TANABE, JR.

CHENGGUAN

Chengguan (738–839) is the reputed fourth patriarch
of the HUAYAN SCHOOLof Chinese Buddhism. Revered

for his erudite and prolific scholarship, he was among

the most influential monks of his time. Although not

a direct student of the third Huayan patriarch FAZANG

(643–712), Chengguan was recognized as Fazang’s

spiritual successor on the basis of his exceptional learn-

ing and prominence, which made him the Huayan tra-

dition’s leading figure among his contemporaries.

During his formative years, Chengguan became profi-

cient in the scriptures of Buddhism and the doctrines

of other Chinese schools, including the CHAN SCHOOL

(especially the Niutou and Northern schools), the

TIANTAI SCHOOL, and Sanlun. His writings also reveal

mastery of the Confucian classics and the works of early

Daoist philosophers, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi.

During his long and highly successful monastic ca-

reer, Chengguan was associated with seven Tang Chi-

nese emperors, and his supporters and admirers

included numerous influential officials and literati.

The imperial court recognized his achievements by

granting him the honorific titles of national teacher

and grand recorder of the clergy. Chengguan’s mag-

num opus is the massive Huayan jing suishu yanyi chao

(in ninety fascicles), which contains his commentary

and subcommentary to the eighty-fascicle translation

of the HUAYAN JING(Flower Garland Scripture). He also

wrote other exegetical works, including a commentary

on Prajña’s forty-fascicle translation of the Huayan

jing,and a few shorter tracts. Chengguan’s key contri-

bution to the development of Huayan doctrine is the

theory of four realms of reality (DHARMADHA
TU)—the

realms of: (1) individual phenomena (shi fajie); (2)

principle (li fajie); (3) nonobstruction between princi-

ple and phenomena (lishi wuai fajie); and (4) non-

obstruction among phenomena (shishi wuai fajie).

Bibliography

Gregory, Peter N. “Ch’eng-kuan and Hua-yen.” In Tsung-mi

and the Sinification of Buddhism.Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1991.

MARIOPOCESKI

CHINA

During its long history in China, which spans nearly

twenty centuries, Buddhism developed flourishing

traditions, exerted far-reaching influence on intellec-

tual and religious life, and left its mark on virtually all

aspects of Chinese society and culture. The transmis-

sion of Buddhism into China involved the wholesale

CHINA