(1644–1911)—can be taken to correspond to a fourth
phase in the history of Chinese Buddhism. The history
of Buddhism during this era is usually told as a narra-
tive of decline, punctuated with occasional efforts to
revive the great tradition’s ancient glories. Some his-
torians have argued that such a negative characteriza-
tion of post-Tang Buddhism does not do justice to the
religious vitality and institutional strength of Song
Buddhism. It is undeniable that under the Song, Bud-
dhism exerted strong influence and attracted a large
following among members of all social classes. The re-
ligion continued to enjoy state patronage and the
monastic vocation attracted many individuals. Bud-
dhist influence on Chinese culture was also pervasive,
as can be observed in the literature and visual arts of
the period. At the same time, there were signs of creep-
ing decline, especially in terms of intellectual creativ-
ity, notwithstanding new developments in Tiantai
scholasticism and Chan literature and praxis. The in-
tellectual decline is evident in the lack of compelling
Buddhist responses to the serious challenge posed by
the Song Confucian revival. The shift of the Chinese
elite’s interest away from Buddhism and toward Con-
fucianism was further boosted by the acceptance of
neo-Confucianism, as formulated by its great system-
atizer Zhu Xi (1130–1200), as official state orthodoxy
during the fourteenth century. For the rest of the im-
perial period Buddhism managed to survive, albeit in
diminished capacity and often on the margins. For the
most part Buddhism after this point assumed a con-
servative stance, as there was no emergence of major
new traditions or significant paradigm shifts.
The beginning of the last phase in the history of
Chinese Buddhism coincides with China’s entry into
the modern period. During the final decades of the
imperial era, China’s inability to adequately respond
to the challenges of modernity—rudely brought to its
doorstep by the increasing encroachment of the colo-
nial powers on Chinese territory in the nineteenth
century—led to erosion and eventually disintegration
of its age-old social and political institutions. After the
republican revolution of 1912, efforts at creating a
strong and stable modern state ended in failure. The
bleak situation was exacerbated by China’s moribund
economy and rampant corruption. During this tu-
multuous period, the adverse sociopolitical circum-
stances affected Buddhist institutions, and traditional
beliefs and practices were rejected by many educated
Chinese as outdated superstitions. In the face of the
new predicament, Buddhism still managed to stage a
minor revival. In some quarters, the revitalization
took the form of renewed interest in traditional intel-
lectual and religious activities, such as philosophical
reflection on Buddhist doctrines and the practice of
Chan meditation. Others, however, tried to reconsti-
tute the Buddhist tradition along modern lines. The
progressive agenda of the reformers included estab-
lishment of educational institutions where the clergy
received modern education. In addition, efforts were
made to internationalize Chinese Buddhism by estab-
lishing connections with Buddhist traditions in other
countries.
With the communist victory in the civil war and the
establishment of the People’s Republic in 1949, Bud-
dhism had to contend with a governing ideology that
had little sympathy for traditional religious beliefs and
practices. During the 1950s the new regime was mainly
concerned with controlling Buddhism by instituting
policies that restricted the activities of the clergy and
imposed state supervision over Buddhist organiza-
tions. The situation rapidly deteriorated during the
1960s and reached its lowest point with the violent sup-
pression of Buddhism (along with other religions) dur-
ing the worst excesses of the Cultural Revolution. At
the time it seemed that the twenty centuries of Bud-
dhist history in China might be coming to an end. With
the institution of more liberal policies during the late
1970s, however, Buddhism began to stage a slow come-
back. The modest resurgence of Buddhism in China
involves restoration of temples and monasteries, ordi-
nation of clergy, revival of traditional beliefs and prac-
tices, and increased interest in academic study of
Buddhism as a part of traditional Chinese culture. Chi-
nese Buddhism is also thriving in TAIWAN, as well as
among immigrant Chinese communities throughout
Asia and in the West.Texts and literary activities
During the early phases of Buddhism in China, one of
the primary concerns for both the foreign missionar-
ies and the native followers was to produce reliable
translations of Buddhist sacred texts. The task of trans-
lating the scriptures and other canonical texts was
daunting because of the sheer size of the Buddhist
canon (which was constantly expanding as new texts
were introduced) and because of the lack of bilingual
expertise among the foreign missionaries and the na-
tive clergy, which was exacerbated by the Chinese aver-
sion to learning foreign languages. During the early
period many of the translations were small private un-
dertakings, typically led by a foreign monk who was
aided by Chinese assistants. The early translations of-CHINA