Daoism were primarily concerned with the spiritual
world and centered on the private sphere, whereas
Confucianism was responsible for the social realm and
focused on managing the affairs of the state. Even
though open-mindedness and acceptance of religious
pluralism remained the norm throughout most of Chi-
nese history, such accommodating attitudes did not go
uncontested. In addition to the Confucian criticisms
of Buddhism, which repeatedly entered public dis-
course throughout Chinese history, there were occa-
sional debates with Daoists that were in part motivated
by the ongoing competition for official patronage
waged by the two religions.
More conspicuous expressions of exclusivist senti-
ments came with the emergence of neo-Confucianism
during the Song period. The stance of leading Confu-
cian thinkers toward Buddhism was often marked by
open hostility. Notwithstanding their criticism of Bud-
dhist doctrines and institutions, neo-Confucian thinkers
drew heavily on Buddhist concepts and ideas. As they
were trying to recapture intellectual space that for cen-
turies had been dominated by the Buddhists, the lead-
ers of the Song Confucian revival remade their
tradition in large part by their creative responses to the
encounter with Buddhism.
Throughout its history Chinese Buddhism also in-
teracted with the plethora of religious beliefs and prac-
tices usually assigned to the category of popular
religion. Buddhist teachings about KARMA(ACTION)
and REBIRTH, beliefs about other realms of existence,
and basic ethical principles became part and parcel of
popular religion. In addition, Buddhist deities—such
as Guanyin, the bodhisattva of compassion—were ap-
propriated by popular religion as objects of cultic wor-
ship. The influence went both ways, as popular deities
were worshiped in Buddhist monasteries and Buddhist
monks performed rituals that catered to common be-
liefs and customs, such as worship of ANCESTORS.
See also:Chan School; China, Buddhist Art in; Con-
fucianism and Buddhism; Daoism and Buddhism;
Huayan School; Pure Land Schools; Syncretic Sects:
Three Teachings; Taiwan; Tiantai School
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den, Netherlands: Brill, 1959.MARIOPOCESKICHINA, BUDDHIST ART INIn the Asian Buddhist world, China is second only to
India for its importance in the development and
preservation of Buddhism and Buddhist art. China be-
came the great reservoir and innovator of East Asian
Buddhism and its art, and inspired important schools
of Buddhism and Buddhist art in Korea and Japan, as
well as other regions. The range of Chinese Buddhist
art is vast, stretching for nearly two thousand years
from the Later Han dynasty (25 B.C.E.–220 C.E.) well
into the Qing dynasty (1644–1911). Often its sources
reach directly to India and its contiguous regions, to
Central Asia, and even Tibet in the later centuries;
there is also a complex interrelationship with the lat-
ter two regions. New interpretations and styles formed
quickly in China, offering an evolving and stimulating
development frequently reflecting the schools of Bud-
dhist thought that emerged in China, as well as im-
agery with popular connotations. Behind the brief
survey presented in this entry, one must keep in mind
the incredible richness of the repertoire and of the in-
numerable innovative interpretations offered by China
in all the arts of painting, sculpture, architecture, caveCHINA, BUDDHISTART IN