tion, the CHAN SCHOOLand its rhetoric of immediate
insight without reliance on words found support in the
fundamental notion of the ineffability of the ultimate
meaning of the dharma, which may have substantially
impeded the further development of formal scriptural
exegesis. Despite these factors, and though many as-
sume that the genre of Buddhist exegesis passed its
zenith centuries ago, commentaries on Buddhist teach-
ings are still being written.
See also:Canon; China; India; Scripture
Bibliography
Gómez, Luis O. “Exegesis and Hermeneutics.” In “Buddhist Lit-
erature,” in Encyclopedia of Religion,Vol. 2, ed. Mircea Eli-
ade. New York: Macmillan, 1987.
Kim Young-ho. Tao-sheng’s Commentary on the Lotus Sutra: A
Study and Translation.Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1990.
Lamotte, Étienne. “Assessment of Textual Interpretation in
Buddhism.” In Buddhist Hermeneutics,ed. Donald S. Lopez,
Jr. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988.
Maraldo, John C. “Hermeneutics and Historicity in the Study
of Buddhism.” Eastern Buddhist19, no. 1 (1986): 17–43.
ALEXANDERL. MAYER
COMMUNISM AND BUDDHISM
Buddhism faced one of its greatest challenges during
the twentieth century when the majority of Asian na-
tions, which were traditionally Buddhist, became in-
volved with communism. Mongolia was the first Asian
country to become communist (1924), followed by
North Korea (1948), China (1949), Tibet (1951), Viet-
nam (1975), Cambodia (1975), and Laos (1975).
Initial encounter
At the early stages of the Buddhist–communist en-
counter, coexistence did not seem impossible. Those
who hoped for peaceful coexistence speculated on the
similarities between communism and Buddhism: Nei-
ther Buddhists nor communists believe in a creator de-
ity, and both Buddhism and communism are based on
a vision of universal egalitarianism. In fact, the Bud-
dhist community (SAN ̇GHA) was even compared with
a communist society.
The seeming compatibility, however, was over-
shadowed by a number of conflicting ideologies. Com-
munism is based on materialism, whereas in Buddhism
primacy of the material world is rejected in favor of
NIRVANA. To communists, environments determine a
human being’s consciousness, whereas Buddhism em-
phasizes the individual practitioner’s capacity to over-
come human limitations through spiritual cultivation.
In addition, Buddhism holds nonviolence and com-
passion as the core of its teaching, whereas commu-
nism foregrounds conflict between different social
classes and endorses the use of violence in support of
the proletarian revolution and the communist agenda.
Despite these differences, communism and Bud-
dhism managed a coexistence for a brief period. In its
early stages, communism gained support because it
was recognized as the antithesis of foreign dominance
in Asian nations at the final stage of imperialist his-
tory. People in Mongolia supported communists in
their efforts to free the nation from Chinese domi-
nance. North Korean communism gained power as a
buffer against Japanese colonialists and American cap-
italist imperialism. Chinese communism set itself up
as a defense against the threat created by the invasion
of the Western powers at the beginning of the twenti-
eth century. Vietnamese communists claimed to be na-
tionalists fighting for the independence of Vietnam
from the imperialist French and capitalist Americans.
Because the Buddhist tradition had existed in Asia for
more than fifteen hundred years, it could be seen by
communists as a confirmation of national identity,
while communism was seen as a means of defending
a nation against foreign invasion. Thus, a coalition be-
tween Buddhism and communism seemed possible.Conflict
Buddhists soon faced reality. Once communist groups
won the wars and communist nation-states began to
take shape, Buddhists were forced to realize that the
basic antagonism of Marxism toward all religion could
not be challenged. Religion in Marxist philosophy is
“the opium of the people.” Communists view religion
as a fantasy and superstition that deludes people about
their social condition. According to communism, re-
ligion is a tool used by the bourgeoisie to exploit the
proletariat and thus delay the proletarian revolution.
Only a few years after Asian nations fell to com-
munism, the initial tolerance toward Buddhism was
replaced by extreme antagonism. Communist parties
launched severe PERSECUTIONSof Buddhists and insti-
gated an irreparable dismantling of Buddhist tradi-
tions. By the late 1930s more than fifteen thousand
monks in the Mongolian People’s Republic were
declared enemies of the state and deported to SiberianCOMMUNISM ANDBUDDHISM