reincarnation, Dge ‘dun rgya mtsho (1475–1542), who
was recognized posthumously as the Second DALAI
LAMA; and Dge ‘dun rgya mtsho’s construction of a
large estate at ‘Bras pung, the Dga’ ldan pho brang,
which became the seat of the Dalai Lamas. Equally rel-
evant is the development of sectarian differences, as re-
flected in the acerbic critiques of Tsong kha pa by other
Sa skya thinkers such as Rong ston (1367–1449) and
Stag tshang (1405–d.u.).
This process was further strengthened by the polit-
ical climate of the times, particularly the rise of polit-
ical tensions between the groups vying for power in
Tibet: the Ring pung family supported by the bka’
brgyud and the Sa skya, and forces from Central Tibet
supported by the Dge lugs. The next century and a half
saw a veritable civil war between these two groups,
which ended only in 1642 with the victory of the forces
of Central Tibet supported by a Mongolian tribe, the
Gushri Khan’s Qoshot, and the installation of the Fifth
Dalai Lama (1617–1682) as the ruler of Tibet.
The rise of the Dalai Lamas as the leaders of the Dge
lugs school cannot be explored here. It is important,
however, to note that originally the Dga’ ldan tradi-
tion was not directed by reincarnated lamas. Its head,
the Holder of the Throne of Dga’ ldan, was chosen
from among senior scholars, the first being Rgyal tshab
and the second Mkhas grub. Gradually, however, the
power of the head of the tradition was eclipsed by rein-
carnated lamas, who became the de facto leaders of the
Dge lugs. The victory of the Fifth Dalai Lama also
seems to have involved a power struggle among rein-
carnated lamas whose dark reflections can be seen in
the myths surrounding the controversial deity, Rdo rje
shugs ldan. There, the Fifth Dalai Lama’s government
is depicted as being responsible for the death of
Gragspa Rgyal mtsham, one of the main Dge lugs lamas
of that time.
The victory of the Dalai Lamas marked a decisive
turn for the Dge lugs, which henceforth became the
dominant tradition. Its great monasteries, particularly
the three monastic seats around Lhasa, became the
undisputed centers of learning in Tibet, drawing schol-
ars from all parts of the Tibetan religious world. Even
non–Dge lugs scholars would go there to receive train-
ing. The rule of the Dalai Lamas’ government also en-
sured that the Dge lugs school could avail itself of the
resources of the state. In this way, it maintained its
hegemony more or less unchallenged until the inva-
sion of Tibet by the People’s Republic of China in
- The consequences of this tragic situation have yet
to emerge, but it is likely that the Dge lugs tradition will
not find it easy to maintain its dominant position.See also:Panchen Lama; TibetBibliography
Cabezón, José Ignacio. “The Regulations of a Monastery.” In
Religions of Tibet in Practice,ed. Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Prince-
ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997.
Dreyfus, Georges B. J. “The Shuk-den Affair: The History and
Nature of a Quarrel.” Journal of the International Association
of Buddhist Studies21, no. 2 (1998): 227–270.
Dreyfus, Georges B. J. The Sound of Two Hands Clapping: The
Education of a Tibetan Buddhist Monk.Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2002.
Ellingson, T. “Tibetan Monastic Constitutions: The bCa Yig.”
In Reflections on Tibetan Culture: Essays in Memory of Tur-
rell V. Wylie,ed. Lawrence Epstein and Richard F. Sherburne.
Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1990.
Gyatso, Lobsang. Memoirs of a Tibetan Lama, tr. Gareth
Sparham. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 1998.
Tarab Tulku. A Brief History of Tibetan Academic Degrees in Bud-
dhist Philosophy.Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of
Asian Studies, 2000.GEORGESB. J. DREYFUSDHAMMAPADAThe Dhammapada(Words of the Doctrine) is one of
the most popular texts of the THERAVADAcanon. It is
embedded in the fifth part of the Suttapitaka as the
second text of the Khuddakanikaya(Group of Small
Texts). The content of the 423 mostly gnomic verses
is often only very loosely connected to Buddhism. The
verses are divided into twenty-six vaggas(sections),
such as “on the world,” “on the Buddha,” or “on
thirst.” Consequently, many parallels are also found in
non-Buddhist texts, such as the Mahabharata.More-
over, numerous parallel collections exist in Buddhist
literature, including the Dharmapadain Gandharof
the DHARMAGUPTAKAschool from Central Asia, the
“Patna” Dharmapadaof the Sammatya school, and
the Udanavargaof the (Mula)Sarvastivada school.The history of these collections and their interrela-
tion is obscured by constant contamination and mu-
tual borrowing of verses. The linguistic features of
some verses indicate that the beginnings might reach
back to a very early period. Most likely material hasDHAMMAPADA