(Vidyaraja, Myoo), and esoteric ritual implements.
Such scholarship examines artistic and stylistic attrib-
utes, iconographic symbolism, textual sources, and
the recorded ritual use of the works. Unfortunate con-
sequences of Japanese scholarship include concentrat-
ing interest on the Shingon system and its arts at the
expense of Japanese Tendai (TIANTAI SCHOOL) or
nonesoteric traditions that incorporate esoteric images
and doctrine. Seeking cultural parallels, Shingon-based
studies tend to focus on Tang Zhenyan examples. Re-
cent exhibitions and studies of later Chinese Buddhist
or Daoist art have enriched our view of esoteric art his-
tory as they trace the complex history of esoteric Bud-
dhist assimilation in China, and include Chinese
esoteric art in the Indo-Tibetan VAJRAYANAtradition
made during the Yuan (1279–1368) through Qing
(1644–1911) dynasties.
The popularity of ferocious manifestations of
Avalokites ́vara found in abundance in the Esoteric tra-
dition is evident in artistic remains throughout East
Asia. Ten marble statues excavated at the Tang monas-
tery of Anguosi, ancient Chang’an (modern Xi’an),
founded in 701, include the Five (alternative opinions
give eight) Vidyaraja kings. The latter were introduced
to Japan by KUKAI(774–835) but soon cults devoted
to only the central king, FudoMyoo, prevailed. The
canonical set of eight Brilliant Kings, popular from the
late Tang in the modern-day provinces of Yunnan (at
Jianchuan under the Nanzhao monarchy) and in
Sichuan (at Baodingshan), are virtually unknown in
Japan and elsewhere in China, indicating significant
regional differences in esoteric imagery. The crypt
finds at FAMENSIMonastery provide new insights into
the contextual history of esoteric material culture.
Used in relic processions to the imperial palace, the
finely crafted ritual and devotional objects were
adorned with esoteric iconography; moreover, they
were arranged in patterns or nested sequences in-
tended as mandala.
Esoteric thought had an impact on early Korean
Buddhism and its arts but it is difficult to discern in
the model generated by sectarian studies. Dharan
sutras were widely circulated during the Three King-
doms and sheets printed with esoteric DHARANImay
be classified as esoteric material culture. The earliest
printed sutra in the world is a dharantext dating to
751 found in the S ́akyamuni STUPAat Pulguksa in 1966.
Reliefs on seventh- and eighth-century stone stupas or
on gold and gilt-bronze reliquaries found within them
provide evidence of cults dedicated to esoteric forms
of the Healing Buddha (Bhaisajyaguru) and the zodiac,
and Ursa Major.
Although Tang Esoteric practices were known in
Korea, to date neither Mahavairocana imagery nor
mandala examples have been found. Vairocana
(Piroch’ana-pul) imagery abounds but it derives from
the HUAYAN JING(Avatamsaka-sutra) and So ̆n (CHAN
SCHOOL) texts and is not esoteric. Guardian figures and
deities relating to rites for national protection, among
them Marci, Vidyaraja, and MahamayurVidyaraja,
were common during the Koryo ̆dynasty (918–1392),
as were esoteric Avalokites ́vara emanations. The mod-
est Esoteric tradition that had taken root was assimi-
lated, and new Mongolian and Tibetan forms of
esotericism replaced them. Huge banner paintings
(kwaebul t’aenghwa) were made for outdoor rites dur-
ing the Choso ̆n dynasty (1392–1910); these probably
derive from Tibetan thang kas.The worship halls at
Choso ̆n monasteries featured paintings and statues ofESOTERICART, EASTASIAA vajra bell in gilt bronze. (Japanese, Kamakura period,
1185–1333.) © The Seattle Art Museum, Eugene Fuller Memor-
ial Collection. Reproduced by permission.