HIMALAYAS, BUDDHIST ART IN
The wide geographic area covered by the Himalayan
range and reaching from Kashmir in the west to Mon-
golia in the east includes several civilizations dedicated
to Buddhism, often in close symbiosis with other reli-
gions. The strength of autochthonous traditions and
the different ways in which Buddhism was imported
from foreign cultures resulted in different types of
Buddhist art in this region.
Kashmir
Sarvastivada Buddhism was the dominant religion in
Kashmir until the sixth century; from the eighth to the
twelfth centuries MAHAYANA Buddhism was also a
strong force. During this period Buddhist art in Kash-
mir developed a characteristic national style embody-
ing elements from Gupta India and Gandhara, and
even from Syrian-Byzantine styles.
No early Kashmiri Buddhist monastery remains in-
tact, but in structure and style they were probably sim-
ilar to the still existing brahmanical structures. In
Parihasapura (Paraspor), there are remains of temples
and of a STUPAthat date to the first half of the eighth
century. The square halls and chapels of these struc-
tures were characterized by lantern-ceilings consisting
of superimposed intersecting squares and tympana of
triangular gables over openings in the facade that en-
closed a trefoil arch. The chapels had fluted pillars and
stepped pyramidal roofs. A special type of building de-
sign was the pañcayatanaform, which consisted of a
cubic structure with entrances in all four walls and a
large central tower and smaller caitya-like elements at
all four corners.
The remains of stupas allow scholars to reconstruct
their original appearance. The stupa in Huviskapura
(Uskur), located inside a large courtyard, includes
terra-cotta and stucco fragments that show Gandhara
influences. Other remains at Sadarhadvana (Harvan),
datable to between 400 and 500 C.E., can be recon-
structed by terra-cotta plaques showing miniature
stupas. The enormous Can ̇kuna-stupa at Parihasa-
pura, datable to the first half of the eighth century, had
a large square double platform with projecting stair-
cases on each side and indented corners, making it
somewhat similar to the BOROBUDURin Java.
Only a few early Kashmiri Buddhist sculptures in
stone have survived, including a life-size standing bo-
dhisattva unearthed at Pandrenthan (Puranadhisthana),
datable to the seventh or eighth century. Stucco and
terra-cotta fragments, stylistically comparable to Hadda
and Taxila, were found in the ruined stupa at Uskur.
Sculptures in bronze are also well documented; their
yellowish brass material, often with inlays of copper
and silver, is typical. Beginning in the eighth century,
standing figures of Buddha S ́akyamuni wore garments
with stylized folds, sometimes including a capelike
“cloud-collar” around the neck. The Buddha was also
often represented seated and wearing a crown. The
stylistic roots for such representations may be found
in Bengal. Kashmiri bodhisattvas were generally orna-
mental, with a luxuriant surface. Avalokites ́vara is of-
ten shown seated in a pensive mood, a form probably
derived from Gandhara models. There are also exam-
ples of other bodhisattvas, such as MAITREYAor Va-
jrapani, as well as goddesses like Tara clad in tight
bodices accentuating their feminine appearance. After
the eighth century, fierce deities of the tantric pan-
theon were also represented.
An impression of what the lost Buddhist murals in
Kashmir must have looked liked may be gained from
the enormously rich twelfth-century wall paintings in
Ladakh, especially those at ALCHI, which were proba-
bly executed by Kashmiri artists.Nepal
Nepal’s proximity to Northern India influenced the
Buddhist art in Nepal on many levels; these Indian in-
fluences were later integrated into existing local tradi-
tions. The earliest still existing monuments were stupas.
The four AS ́OKAstupas erected at the cardinal points
near the entrances to the city of Patan are related to ba-
sic Indian forms of the third century, as exemplified by
the Great Stupa of SAN
CI. The stupas at Patan have flat
tumulus-like cupolas on low walls, small shrines for re-
liefs of buddhas, and square harmikas(pavilion-like
blocks of stone atop the domelike stupas) that show
Pala influence. The large Svayambhunath stupa to the
west of Kathmandu, first erected around 400 C.E., is
dedicated to the five tathagatas. It shows a relationship
to a Mauryan tumulus, but pairs of eyes painted onto
the four sides of the harmikaare a Nepalese charac-
teristic. They symbolize the all-seeing eyes of the
supreme adi-buddha.The stupa is designed as a rep-
resentation of the axis of the world, and it is thus sur-
rounded by four shrines marking each of the heavenly
directions. The plan of the second monumental stupa
of Bodhnath in Bhatgaon (Bhaktapur) is related to the
concepts of a MANDALA. It is also orientated to the four
heavenly directions; it has a flat large tumulus on a
three-step foundation, as well as eyes on the harmika.HIMALAYAS, BUDDHISTART IN