developed. Most popular of these is the opening scene
in which S ́akyamuni Buddha, after his enlightenment,
attains the transcendental body (dharmakaya) of
Vairocana, the Cosmic Buddha. Later a pictorial
scheme became popular in which the central scenes
were represented together as the “nine assemblies in
seven locations.”
Each of these scenes is depicted as a standard bud-
dha assembly with a seated Vairocana surrounded by
all the BODHISATTVAS, ARHATS, DIVINITIES, and protec-
tors. Another important Avatamsaka-related theme is
provided by the Gandavyuha,a text that is an integral
part of the long version of the Avatamsaka-sutra.This
embedded scripture describes the youth Sudhana’s
spiritual journey in search of enlightenment. Some sec-
ular powers used its cosmological and encompassing
vision of totality in order to adopt the authority and
perceived enlightenment of a Buddhist theocracy.
Hence the Avatamsaka-sutrainevitably came to be as-
sociated with the divine mandate of various ruling
houses in East Asia.
China
Among the earliest expressions of Huayan-related art
in China are the so-called cosmic buddhas, images in
stone and bronze that depict the standing Vairocana.
What distinguishes these images from other standing
buddhas is the fact that their robes are adorned with
numerous small images of buddhas and other beings
meant to represent the totality of the DHARMADHATU
(dharma realm). The monumental BUDDHA IMAGESin
the YUN’GANGcaves outside of Datong in northern
Shanxi are the earliest examples of Buddhist art in
China relating to Vairocana. Stone sculptures dating
from the late Northern Wei (386–534) and Northern
Qi (550–577) found at the site of the Longxing Monas-
tery in Shandong feature Vairocana images whose
robes are painted with scenes of the dharmadhatu.
The HUAYAN SCHOOL of Buddhism reached un-
precedented popularity during the late seventh century
through the efforts of the third Huayan patriarch
FAZANG(643–712). With solid backing from Empress
Wu Zedian (r. 684–704) and the imperial court, the
creations of various monuments associated with the
Huayan school and its cosmology were initiated as part
of a new cult of KINGSHIPin which the empress played
the role of a cakravartin (wheel-turning ruler). One of
the most famous Huayan-related images made around
this period is the large Vairocana image carved in the
grotto of the Fengxian Monastery in the LONGMEN
complex of grottoes. The 13.5-meter-high image is
carved in the style characteristic of Buddhist sculptural
art as it flourished in the central provinces during the
second half of the seventh century. Iconographically it
does not bear any distinctive marks or characteristics
that clearly identify it with Vairocana. This indicates
that at the time of its making a distinct Huayan iconog-
raphy had not yet developed. However, this appears to
have changed in the following decades. Images of the
adorned Vairocana wearing crowns and jewelry, sym-
bols representing the transcendent and cosmic nature
of this buddha, are found among the Buddhist carvings
of Sichuan in sites such as Wanfo cliff in Guangyuan
and at Feixian Pavilion in Pujiang.
The Huayan school remained influential through-
out the Tang and left a strong imprint on the future
development of Chinese Buddhism. Wall paintings
and votive banners thought to date from the eighth
century and featuring dharmadhatu tableaux—in
essence an illustrated guide to the Avatamsaka-sutra’s
“nine assemblies in seven locations”—have been found
in the Mogao caves in DUNHUANG.
During the late Tang dynasty (618–907), Sichuan
province developed a strong Huayan cult that is espe-
cially reflected in the expressive narrative stone carv-
ings of Dazu. Some of the sculptural groups here give
evidence of a merger between the imagery of Huayan
and that of the MIJIAO(ESOTERIC) SCHOOL, a develop-
ment that culminated in the creation of the pilgrim-
age center on Mount Baoding to the north of Dazu
during the middle of the Southern Song dynasty
(1127–1279). This important pilgrimage site features
monumental sculptural groups in stone depicting cen-
tral scenes and tableaux of the Avatamsaka-sutraand
related scriptures.
During the Northern Song (960–1127), the
Gandavyuha reached new heights of popularity
through the printing of the illustrated text of Sudhana’s
journey by master Foguo (eleventh–twelfth centuries),
a monk of the Yunmen branch of the CHAN SCHOOL.
The presence of Huayan imagery within the context of
Chan Buddhism shows the extent to which the former
tradition influenced other schools of Chinese Bud-
dhism during the Song dynasty.
The Khitan rulers of the Liao empire (907–1125)
were devout Buddhists and the Huayan school enjoyed
special patronage. Numerous monasteries were built,
including many belonging to the Huayan school.
Among these were the Higher and Lower Huayan
monasteries in Datong, where an impressive group of
wooden sculptures stand on an altar in the center ofHUAYANART