the scripture’s title. Key Huayan concepts and doc-
trines, such as mutual interpenetration and identity,
are based on religious motifs and discussions presented
in the Huayan jing.Nonetheless, the Huayan school
also drew on other texts and traditions, and was pre-
disposed toward imaginative theoretical innovation.
Accordingly, the full range of its teachings goes beyond
parameters set by the Huayan jingand other canoni-
cal sources, and involves novel philosophical reflec-
tions on the nature of reality.
The mature Huayan system represents an ingenious
amalgamation of mythopoetic motifs and doctrinal
tenets of Indian provenance, on one hand, with philo-
sophical outlooks and spiritual sentiments representa-
tive of indigenous Chinese religious and intellectual
traditions, on the other. While they incorporate the
main streams of MAHAYANAscholasticism and sub-
stantiate their arguments by referring to an array of
canonical sources, the writings of the Huayan patri-
archs also reveal an unmistakably Chinese concern for
harmony and balance, and a tendency to valorize the
phenomenal realm. For that reason, the formation of
the Huayan school is regarded as one of the culminat-
ing chapters in the sinification of Buddhism, especially
in the transformation of doctrine.
The establishment of Huayan as a distinctive sys-
tem of religious philosophy and practice was largely
the work of a few brilliant monks active during the
Tang dynasty, who were retroactively recognized as the
tradition’s patriarchs. Although there was relatively lit-
tle original doctrinal development that occurred after
them, Huayan teachings continued to be admired as a
theoretical hallmark of Chinese Buddhism. They also
left imprints on the evolution of Buddhist SOTERIOL-
OGY, especially as some of their key elements were ab-
sorbed into other traditions, such as the CHAN SCHOOL.
Early on, Huayan was also transmitted to Korea and
Japan, where it had a significant impact on the evolu-
tion of native Buddhist traditions. The Huayan world-
view also exerted influence on other religious and
philosophical traditions, such as neo-Confucianism,
and it continues to provide a compelling vision with
contemporary relevance.
Early history
The gradual formation of a loosely defined and broadly
constituted Huayan tradition started soon after the
first Chinese translation of the Huayan jingwas made
by Buddhabhadra (359–429) between 418 and 421. Be-
fore long, the scripture’s influence was felt in different
spheres of medieval Chinese Buddhism. In the scholas-
tic arena, the text inspired doctrinal speculations, gave
rise to exegetical traditions, and appeared in tax-
onomies of teachings (panjiao), where it was typically
treated as a repository of the Buddha’s most profound
teachings. The Huayan jingalso had broad popular ap-
peal. It became a focal point of various cultic activi-
ties, including religious rites and vegetarian feasts, and
it motivated pious acts such as chanting and copying.
The text also inspired artistic responses, evident in
the production of numerous images and painting of
Vairocana, the cosmic buddha who is its central deity.The history of Huayan as a distinct school of Chi-
nese Buddhism is usually discussed in reference to its
famous five patriarchs, all of whom were creative
thinkers who left their indelible marks on the history
of East Asian Buddhism. Such a view of Huayan his-
tory is somewhat problematic, inasmuch as at the time
of the early patriarchs there was no awareness of
Huayan as an independent tradition and no notion of
a patriarchal succession. The first four patriarchs were
retroactively recognized as such only after their deaths,
as the notion of spiritual LINEAGEbecame an impor-
tant organizing principle, marker of religious ortho-
doxy, and source of legitimacy, largely due to the in-
fluence of the Chan school. Even so, there is no gain-
saying the fact that the writings of the Huayan patri-
archs are the core of Huayan’s unique worldview, and
that they encompass the main doctrinal and soterio-
logical perspectives identified with the tradition.Dushun. The putative first patriarch, Dushun
(557–640), is an enigmatic figure who embodies both
the popular and intellectual streams of the nascent
Huayan movement. Also known as Fashun, he was
revered by his contemporaries as a thaumaturge and
meditation master, who was also recognized as a lead-
ing figure in local cultic traditions centered on the
Huayan jing.His historical position in the doctrinal
evolution of Huayan is based on his reputed author-
ship of Fajie guanmen(Discernments of the Realm of
Reality), a seminal text that formulates some of the ba-
sic principles and themes of the mature Huayan sys-
tem, most notably the causal relationship between
principle (li) and phenomena (shi). Although recent
scholarship has raised doubts about Dushun’s author-
ship of this text, the evidence is not conclusive.Zhiyan.Dushun was one of the teachers of Zhiyan
(602–668), the second patriarch and the architect of
the basic structure of Huayan’s doctrinal system.HUAYANSCHOOL