Heian, through the medieval period, and even into
modern times; a force that spreads across the bound-
aries of clerical and lay communities or elite and pop-
ular Buddhism—a force, in fact, that reaches beyond
Buddhism proper into Shintoand FOLK RELIGION, al-
lowing a remarkable freedom of accommodation be-
tween the more universal Buddhist vision and the
various local Japanese beliefs and practices. The preva-
lence of this style may help to explain why Japanese
Buddhists tend to think of their dead as ancestral “bud-
dha” (hotoke) spirits dwelling in the other world, and
why, though the Buddhist denominations today are so
sharply divided in formal doctrine and institutional
organization, they are so similar in their social func-
tion as the intermediaries between the realms of the
living and the dead.
See also:Chan School; Clerical Marriage in Japan;
Exoteric-Esoteric (Kenmitsu) Buddhism in Japan;
Horyuji and Todaiji; Japan, Buddhist Art in; Japan-
ese Royal Family and Buddhism; Kamakura Bud-
dhism, Japan; Mahayana Precepts in Japan; Meiji
Buddhist Reform; Nara Buddhism; Parish (Danka,
Terauke) System in Japan; Pure Land Schools; Shin-
gon Buddhism, Japan; Shinto (Honji Suijaku) and
Buddhism; Tiantai School; Temple System in Japan
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CARLBIELEFELDTJAPAN, BUDDHIST ART INThe juxtaposition of the words Buddhistand artmay
seem natural, requiring no comment. But this concept
is of recent vintage and stems from encounters be-
tween traditional societies and modern interpreters.
In the case of Japan, the creation of an elite canon of
“Buddhist art” took place in the late nineteenth cen-
tury, building upon earlier precedents. Over the twen-
tieth century, numerous temple buildings, icons, and
other objects received state-approved designations as
National Treasure, Important Cultural Property, andJAPAN, BUDDHISTART IN