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Wheel of Time: The Kalachakra in Context.Ithaca, NY: Snow
Lion, 1991.
JOHNNEWMANKAMAKURA BUDDHISM, JAPAN
Kamakura Buddhism is a modern scholarly term re-
ferring to a phase in the development of Japanese
Buddhism coinciding with the Kamakura period
(1185–1333). The term also refers to several new Bud-
dhist movements that appeared during that time,
specifically, Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren. These
movements eventually became the dominant schools
of Buddhism in Japan. Kamakura Buddhism is typi-
cally contrasted to NARABUDDHISMand Heian Bud-
dhism, which denote other forms of Buddhism and
the periods in which they emerged. These three cate-
gories—Nara, Heian, and Kamakura Buddhism—
provide a historical periodization as well as a concep-
tual framework for the classification of Buddhist
schools. Of the three, Kamakura Buddhism is fre-
quently portrayed as the most significant, especially in
light of the large memberships of its modern denom-
inations. This threefold classification appears in most
surveys of Japanese Buddhism, although some schol-
ars question whether it accurately reflects the charac-
ter of Buddhism in each historical period and the
actual course of its development.
The foundations on which Kamakura Buddhism
arose were the religious traditions of the Nara
(710–784) and Heian (794–1185) periods. These pe-
riods correspond to the time when Japan’s capital
was located first in the city of Nara and then in Heian
(Kyoto). The Kamakura period is likewise named
after a city, Kamakura, where the first warrior
government was established in 1185. Hence, the pe-
riodization of Japanese history, as well as the classi-
fication of its Buddhist schools, has arisen as an
extension of Japan’s geography and political history.
There are questions whether this political framework
offers the best structure for categorizing and analyz-
ing Japanese Buddhism, but it has become the most
common template used in presentations of Japanese
Buddhism.
Nara and Heian Buddhism
Nara Buddhism is typically equated with six schools,
or more properly six traditions, of Buddhist scholar-
ship. These developed during the eighth century at ma-
jor monasteries in and around Nara, such as Todaiji,
Kofukuji, Gangoji, Daianji, and Toshodaiji. The six
consist specifically of: (1) Kusha, the study of the
ABHIDHARMAKOS ́ABHASYA, a treatise that analyzes all
things into atomistic units; (2) Hosso, the study of
YOGACARA, a philosophy attributing this atomistic re-
ality to mind only; (3) Jojitsu (Chinese, Chengshi), the
study of a treatise that recognizes discrete elements at
a conventional level, but not at an absolute level; (4)
Sanron, the study of MADHYAMAKA, a philosophy us-
ing emptiness as a concept to refute the standard ideas
of existence and nonexistence; (5) Kegon (Chinese,
HUAYAN), a philosophy of interdependence and mu-
tual identification among all things; and (6) Ritsu
(Sanskrit, VINAYA), a systematic exposition of the
rules, procedures, and lifestyle applying to the Bud-
dhist clergy.
These six schools represent a complex body of
knowledge transplanted from the Asian mainland and
studied by clerics as correlative systems rather than as
competing philosophies. The state sanctioned and sup-
ported the monasteries in which they flourished, and
sought to make Buddhist learning and the entire Bud-
dhist order its own preserve. It oversaw who could
become priests and nuns, and issued regulations gov-
erning them. Such control, aimed at protection of the
state and concrete benefits, is considered a defining
characteristic of Nara Buddhism. Despite the state’s ef-
forts, Buddhist beliefs and practices began to spread
more widely in the population, primarily through itin-
erant Buddhist preachers such as Gyoki (or Gyogi,
668–749).
Heian Buddhism refers specifically to the Tendai
and Shingon schools, which emerged at the beginning
of the Heian period (794–1185) and quickly domi-
nated religious affairs in Japan. This new phase com-
menced soon after the imperial capital was moved
from Nara to Kyoto in an attempt to distance the gov-
ernment from the encroaching influence of the Nara
temples. Heian Buddhism arose in a sense as a reac-
tion to Nara Buddhism, and also as a continuing ex-
pansion of Buddhism from the Asian continent. The
Heian founders, SAICHO (767–822) of Tendai and
KUKAI(774–835) of Shingon, studied Buddhism in
China and introduced into Japan trends they encoun-
tered there, along with adaptations of their own. Each
considered his own form of Buddhism superior toKAMAKURABUDDHISM, JAPAN