Cloud Dream of the Nine,1687–1688) by Kim Man-
jung (1637–1692) is a typical Buddhist novel that por-
trays all the fame and glory of the human world as a
dream, making the Buddhist notion of S ́UNYATA
(EMPTINESS) its primary theme. Sassi namjo ̆ng ki(The
Story of Lady Sa,ca. 1689–1692) serves as a prototype
for later novels, taking the promotion of virtue and re-
proval of vice as its main theme. Onggojip cho ̆n(The
Tale of a Stubborn Person Ong), Sim Ch’o ̆ng cho ̆n(The
Tale of Sim Ch’ong), and Hu ̆ngbu cho ̆n(The Tale of
Hu ̆ngbu), all composed in the late Choso ̆n period,
adopted the Buddhist motifs of karmic fruition and
promotion of virtue. Korean vernacular literature
gained wider readership in the mid-nineteenth cen-
tury, about the time that the classical Confucian novel
in Chinese entered its period of decline.
Koreans composed literature in classical Chinese
before the invention of the Korean alphabet. Unlike
China and Japan, however, Korea did not have a strong
tradition of fictional prose narratives before the sev-
enteenth century. The promulgation of the Korean
script brought popular literary forms, including fic-
tion, to prominence. In particular, political, social, and
economic diversification resulting from the invasions
of Japan and Qing China from the end of the sixteenth
century to the mid-seventeenth century was matched
by cultural diversification, and the vernacular novel
was a product of this milieu. Han’gu ̆l versions of the
novel came to be particularly popular among women
and lay readers, who were unfamiliar with Chinese
writing, and vernacular novels gained a wide reader-
ship. Buddhist vernacular literature did not appeal to
the literati, however, due in part to the dominance of
Confucianism during the Choso ̆n period.
Buddhist influences on Korean language
and vocabulary
Buddhism also exerted considerable influence on the
Korean language and vocabulary. Contemporary
scholars have argued that Han’gu ̆l originated from
symbol letters (puhoja), a kind of signifier used in Bud-
dhist literature in classical Chinese during the Koryo ̆
dynasty (918–1392). Some Korean and Japanese schol-
ars have begun studying puhojaas the possible origin
of the Korean alphabet and they have noted its use in
Buddhist canonical texts during the Koryo ̆period. An
ardent debate in Korean academe rages over this issue.
Many Korean geographical names are associated
with Buddhism. For instance, Mount So ̆rak (Snowy
Peak), one of the most beautiful mountains in Korea,
is considered the Korean counterpart of the Hi-
malayas, the birthplace of the Buddha. Much of Ko-
rean cultural language involves Buddhist words or is
associated with Buddhism. A representative example
is the word ip’an sap’an,which originally referred to
practicing monks who studied both doctrine and
meditation (ip’an) and to administrative monks
(sap’an). In addition, there are some difference in the
way similar terms are used in China and Korea. For
example, the terms pigu(Chinese, biqiu; monk) and
piguni(Chinese, biqiuni; nun) are still used in Korea,
but they are no longer recognized in China. Moreover,
the meaning of some Buddhist terminology has
changed. For instance, the meditative term musim(no
mind, or no false mind) today means “heartlessness.”
The original meaning of ̆op(karma) referred to both
good and bad actions; now it signifies only evil ac-
tions. Furthermore, the Buddhist terms that entered
everyday parlance often had derogatory meanings, a
product of the Confucian dominance of premodern
Korea. Since the Choso ̆n period, in particular, the
meaning of certain Buddhist terms has become
derogatory; thus, ip’an sap’an came to signify “a
brawling situation.” Originally the term yadan po ̆pso ̆k
referred to “an outdoor sermon”; it is now used in a
negative sense to mean “an extremely noisy situation.”Historically, Buddhist literature played a leading
role in the formation of vernacular Korean literature.
By the late nineteenth century, the importation of
Western civilization and culture caused traditional
verse and prose forms to give way to new forms. Al-
though the Nim u ̆i ch’immuk(Silence of Love,1926)
by monk HANYONGUN(1879–1944) is considered
one of the masterpieces of modern Korean poetry,
vernacular Buddhist literature in Han’gu ̆l was not
generally perceived as literary. It is only in recent years
that Buddhist literature has regained a growing read-
ership in Korea.See also:Chinese, Buddhist Influences on Vernacular
Literature in; Korea; Languages; Poetry and BuddhismBibliography
Bantly, Francisca Cho. Embracing Illusion: Truth and Fiction in
The Dream of the Nine Clouds.Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1996.
Lee, Peter H. Korean Literature: Topics and Themes.Tucson:
University of Arizona Press, 1966.
Rutt, Richard, trans. A Nine Cloud Dream.In Virtuous Women:
Three Classic Korean Novels,ed. Richard Rutt and Kim
chong-un. Seoul: Royal Asiatic Society, 1974.KOREAN, BUDDHISTINFLUENCES ONVERNACULARLITERATURE IN