LALITAVISTARA
The Lalitavistara,of late but uncertain date (ca. fourth
century C.E.), is an important Sanskrit biography that
recounts in both prose and verse the life of the Bud-
dha from his preexistence in Tusita heaven to his first
sermon at Sarnath. Originally written in Sanskrit, it is
Mahayanist in its view of S ́akyamuni, embellishing his
life story with accounts of miracles and evidence of his
supernatural nature.
See also:Buddha, Life of the; Sanskrit, Buddhist Lit-
erature in
Bibliography
Bays, Gwendolyn, trans. The Voice of the Buddha: The Beauty of
Compassion,2 vols. Berkeley, CA: Dharma, 1983.
JOHNS. STRONGLAMA
A lama is a Tibetan Buddhist teacher. In the most nar-
row sense, the term bla ma(pronounced “lama”) refers
to a lay or ordained religious instructor. It is also com-
monly used by Tibetans as a title for tulku(sprul sku),
a reincarnated teacher. The prominent position of the
lama in Tibetan Buddhism gave rise, first in China and
then in the West, to the misnomer Lamaismto refer
to Tibetan religion.
The term bla mawas one of countless neologisms
invented by early Buddhist translators active in sev-
enth- and eighth-century Tibet. It was coined to ren-
der the Sanskrit term guru,commonly glossed in India
as “heavy,” in apparent reference to the great burden
of good qualities and responsibilities the religious
guide carries. The Tibetan word blawas already en-
dowed with considerable religious weight, referring to
the life-force or spirit of an individual or corporate en-
tity, such as a family or a community. The blais mo-
bile, able to establish residence in numerous external
places or objects called bla gnas,or “bla support.”
Damage to the bla gnasis harmful, even fatal, to the
person to whom it belongs. More perilous still is the
ever-present danger that the blamight wander away or
be stolen by demons, to the detriment of the person
or group. Rituals are commonly performed to prevent
the loss of the blaand call it back when it has departed.
Blaalso caries the senses of “high,” “appropriate,”
and “lord,” and was used to translate the Sanskrit terms
pati(lord) and urdhvam(elevated). The second part
of the word, ma,can be read as either a substantive
marker, a negative particle, or “mother.” The multi-
valence of both syllables has led to near-countless et-
ymologies of the term by Tibetan and Western exegetes
alike, among them “highest” (literally, “none above”)
and “exalted mother.”The lama, incarnate or otherwise, occupies a cen-
tral role in Tibetan Buddhism. This status can in part
be attributed to the influence of tantric Buddhism. The
tantric guru serves as the conduit for the teachings,
transmitting secret instruction and rites though a se-
ries of initiations. The tantric practitioner is enjoined
to view his or her guru as a buddha, more precious
than any other BUDDHASor BODHISATTVAS. Because of
this the lama is considered in Tibet to be the fourth
jewel, equal if not superior to the buddha, dharma, and
SAN ̇GHA.This exalted status is perhaps a reason for the in-
vention of Lamaism, a term that has its roots in
eighteenth-century China. Since the thirteenth cen-
tury, powerful Tibetan lamas interacted with Mongol
and Chinese imperial rulers, who referred to the lamas
as seng,the term for Chinese monks. In the eighteenth
century, however, the category of the Tibetan Buddhist
master was differentiated from sengand transliterated
as lama.This gave rise to the term lama jiao,the reli-
gion of bla ma,whence came the English Lamaism.The
term was adopted by Western travelers and scholars of
Tibet who routinely viewed Tibetan religion as a de-
based mingling of indigenous Tibetan animism with
“pure” Indian Buddhism, and hence literally unwor-
thy of being called Buddhism. Though usage persists,
the term Lamaismis considered offensive by Tibetans
and is by and large dropping out of circulation.Bibliography
Lessing, Ferdinand. “Calling the Soul: A Lamaist Ritual.” Se-
mitic Philology11 (1951): 263–284.
Lopez, Donald S., Jr. Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism
and the West.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.
Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Réne de. Oracles and Demons: The Cult
and Iconography of the Tibetan Protective Deities.Kath-
mandu, Nepal: Book Faith India, 1993.
Sperling, Elliot. “The Fifth Karma-pa and Some Aspects of the
Relationship between Tibet and the Early Ming.” In Tibetan
Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson: Proceedings of the In-LALITAVISTARA