the focus of numerous ARHATcults, such as those de-
voted to the worship of the disciples UPAGUPTAand
MAHAKAS ́YAPA. The MAHAYANAtradition elaborated
upon the abhijñasand rddhisof early Buddhism in its
depictions of the attainments of celestial bodhisattvas
and cosmic buddhas. In Buddhist TANTRA, these same
powers became the model for a host of magical abili-
ties called siddhispossessed by tantric masters and dis-
played as signs of their spiritual perfection.
See also:Dhyana (Trance State); Meditation; Vipas-
sana(Sanskrit, Vipas ́ yana)
Bibliography
Buddhaghosa. The Path of Purification(Visuddhimagga), tr.
Bhikkhu Nyanamoli. Berkeley, CA: Shambhala, 1964.
Katz, Nathan. Buddhist Images of Human Perfection: The Ara-
hant of the Sutta Pitaka Compared with the Bodhisattva and
the Mahasiddha.Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982.
Ray, Reginald A. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist
Values and Orientations.New York: Oxford University Press,
1994.
PATRICKA. PRANKEABORTION
Abortion is the deliberate termination of pregnancy by
mechanical or pharmaceutical means that result in the
death of an unborn fetus. Since the death of the fetus
is willfully caused, abortion is the subject of heated
controversy. Just as Christians are divided in their
opinions about abortion, Buddhists likewise present a
range of views from unequivocal condemnation to
active support. Between the extremes are various at-
tempts to justify abortion without completely affirm-
ing it, or to question it without totally rejecting it.
There are also those who remain silent on the issue.
Early Buddhist teachings and practices
Early Buddhist texts describe the formation of the fe-
tus in great detail. At conception the fetus is in a liq-
uid state and takes on flesh at the end of two weeks.
Hands, feet, and a head appear by the fifth week, and
the embryo is mature after three months. In physical
terms, life begins with conception, but since the new
fetus takes shape around a state of being that has al-
ready had previous lives, it represents a continuation
of life and not just the beginning of new life. Most texts
deny that the transmigrating state of being is a per-
manent soul, but they also define different kinds of IN-
TERMEDIATE STATESthat provides the karmic transition
from one bodily life to the next. The exact nature of
this intermediate state is the subject of debate, but the
belief that there is some kind of vital continuity be-
tween one incarnation and the next means that the be-
ginning of life does not take place at conception but
precedes it. Each conception, however, is not taken
lightly and the termination of bodily life at any stage
is generally regarded as killing.
Abortion is therefore not supported in early Bud-
dhist teachings. It violates the first precept against the
taking of life and goes against other teachings that con-
demn acts causing harm to others. Rituals performed
for the fetus affirm its life and request protection for
it and its mother. Monks who performed an abortion
or helped a woman obtain abortion drugs were sub-
ject to punishment, including expulsion from the or-
der. A monk could also be punished for reciting
magical spells to prevent birth, or even for advising a
woman to get an abortion.
Traditional methods of performing abortions were
crude and often not very effective. Medicines were
used, but they could harm the mother or fail to pro-
duce the desired result. Abortionists used heating and
scorching, as well as heavy manipulation, including
trampling, of the womb, to terminate a pregnancy.
Since intention is an important consideration in de-
termining the seriousness of an offense, early texts dis-
cuss the different levels of infraction involved in cases
in which death occurs to the mother or the fetus or
both. The most serious crime is committed when the
fetus alone dies as the intended victim.Modern views and practices
With the development of safer and more effective
means of abortion through modern medical practices,
the abortion rate in Buddhist countries has risen. Ac-
cording to a survey done in 1981, it was estimated that
there were thirty-seven abortions for every one thou-
sand women of childbearing age in Thailand, a coun-
try in which over 90 percent of the population is
Buddhist. The same survey estimated that there were
sixty-five to ninety abortions among Japanese women
of childbearing age. The United States rate was 22.6,
according to this survey.
These statistics show that early Buddhist proscrip-
tions against abortion have not prevented its practice.
Aware of Buddhist teachings against abortion, modernABORTION