medicines (Bhesajjakhandha) of the Buddhist monas-
tic code (Vinayapitaka; Basket of Discipline) of the Pali
canon. Once established in the earliest canon, medi-
cine became integral to Buddhist doctrine.
The monastic code of the Pali canon provides two
forms of medical information: materia medicaand
stories of treatments based on cases of diseases. The
pharmacopeia, known as “the medicines requisite in
sickness,” consisted of the five basic medicinal sub-
stances permitted all monks—clarified butter, fresh
butter, oil, honey, and molasses—as well as various
fats, roots, extracts, leaves, fruits, gums, and salts. Al-
though monks and nuns are normally forbidden to eat
after noon, in cases of illness, certain foods were
deemed medicines and could, therefore, be consumed
at any time of the day.
The stories of medical treatments found in the
monastic code are among the earliest examples of med-
ical practice found anywhere in the world and illus-
trate the Buddha’s rational and utilitarian approach to
healing. Buddhists focused on concrete therapies
rather than the theory of disease and medicine. The
process was paradigmatic: A certain monk, suffering
from a particular illness, came to the Buddha who, af-
ter careful consideration, sanctioned a treatment. This
practical method of healing became the model for later
medical manuals. These are among the first examples
of the Buddha’s role as healer. He provided cures for
a variety of illnesses, ranging from demonic possession
to sores on the feet, which were typically the kinds of
maladies from which wandering ascetics might have
suffered. Both the diseases and their cures bear a close
affinity to their counterparts in the Sanskrit medical
treatises.
The story of the semimythical physician Jvaka Ko-
marabhacca, found in another part of the Pali VINAYA,
discloses a similar paradigm of utilitarian medicine.
Variations of this popular tale occur in Tibetan and
Chinese Buddhist canonical literature. Jvaka’s extra-
ordinary skill made him the physician to kings and to
the Buddha.
Medicine grew along with Buddhism in India. Un-
der the reign of King AS ́OKAin the mid-third century
B.C.E., Buddhism became a virtual state religion, and by
royal proclamation basic medical care was provided to
both humans and animals throughout the kingdom. By
the seventh century C.E., medicine was part of the ed-
ucational curriculum at major monastic centers in In-
dia. When Buddhism spread from India, medicine went
with it and developed under indigenous influences.
In the early centuries C.E., Sri Lanka received the
original monastic medical doctrines. New Buddhist
medical treatises were composed, and certain monas-
teries maintained a type of clinic with medicinal
baths. In the THERAVADAcountries of Southeast Asia,
traditional medicine remains closely connected to
Buddhism.
In Central Asia, Buddhism was the vehicle for the
transmission of Indian medicine to other parts of Asia.
The original rational paradigm was the basis for new
medical texts and manuals, which took the form of col-
lections of formulas, each effective against several ail-
ments. Originally composed in Sanskrit, they were
translated into different Central Asian languages, and
from those into Tibetan. Some manuals were even
written on animal skins, which allowed doctors to
carry them with ease and consult them when neces-
sary. Certain Sanskrit medical treatises, translated into
Tibetan, were incorporated into the Tibetan Buddhist
canon. Indian medicine combined with Chinese, Per-
sian, and indigenous Tibetan medical practices to yield
Tibetan medicine. In China, where the cults of the
healing buddhas and BODHISATTVASfound popularity,
Buddhist medical doctrines were integrated with in-
digenous Chinese medicine. Similar trends were fol-
lowed in Korea and Japan.
Early Buddhism’s incorporation of medicine into its
religious doctrine was unique and contributed to the
religion’s development. The practical care and medical
attention that was given to all who required it helped
provide the support and popularity necessary to sus-
tain a religious movement through its various trans-
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