in ancient India. The “Mahayana cult of the book” en-
dures as well. In this and many other respects, Newars
continue the evolutionary patterns of ritual practice
and lay ideals of later Indic Buddhism. Claims that “In-
dian Buddhism died out” defy geography and ignore
the ongoing survival of Newar Buddhism.
Once the Newar kings were ousted by the Shah dy-
nasty from Gorkha that unified the modern state in
1769, discrimination against Buddhists and changes
in land tenure laws undermined the tenancy system
that had supported the domesticated Newar monas-
tic institution. At its peak, Newar Buddhists had es-
tablished over three hundred monasteries. Today,
roughly 10 percent have all but disappeared and more
than 50 percent are in perilous structural condition.
The majority of the monasteries, however, still func-
tion and most of the remainder can still be located us-
ing modern records.
The cities of Kathmandu and Patan both have a sys-
tem of main monasteries (mu baha), eighteen and fif-
teen, respectively; each monastery is linked to one or
more satellite monasteries. Every householder monk
is ordained in one of these monasteries, though they
may reside in one of the several hundred branch
monasteries affiliated with the main monasteries. A
system of rotation requires that each ordained male
perform the monastic daily ritual duties periodically.
Bhaktapur and other smaller towns in the Kathmandu
valley also have bahas,but each is an independent en-
tity. Newar monasteries are now ruled by the senior
male members of their individual san ̇ghas, which
makes reform or innovation within the local san ̇gha
difficult. From the Shah-era conquest in 1769 until the
present, Newar Mahayana Buddhism has been grad-
ually weakening as a cultural force due to the loss of
landed income and leadership. Yet despite the decline
of the monasteries as buildings and institutions, much
is still preserved in the elaborate monastic architec-
ture, the thousands of archived texts, and the wealth
of cultural observances.
The typical Newar bahais situated around a court-
yard. The main entrance, often ornamented by a tym-
panum, usually has small shrines dedicated to the
monastery guardians Ganesh and Mahakala, which
flank the passageway leading into the main courtyard.
Opposite the entrance is the main shrine building. On
the ground floor is the kwapa dyah, usually S ́akyamuni
Buddha, flanked by images of his two great disciples,
MAHAMAUDGALAYANAand S ́ARIPUTRA. Stairs within
the main shrine building lead to the agama, a tantric
shrine that is opened only to adults who have received
the appropriate Vajrayana initiation. The windows and
the door, including another tympanum, are often
adorned by elaborate wood carvings.
One of the most important changes that Shah rule
brought to the middle hill regions of the country was
the expansion of trade, and this was commonly in the
hands of Newars who migrated to trade towns. The
thousands who left the valley brought their promi-
nently Buddhist culture with them. Thus, in towns
such as (from east to west) Daran, Dhankuta, Chain-
pur, Bhojpur, Dolakha, Trisuli, Bandipur, Pokhara,
Palpa, and Baglung, Newar Buddhists built bahasas
branch institutions of those in their home cities.Theravada Buddhism
Since the mid-twentieth century, Newars who have
become disenchanted with their form of Mahayana
monasticism have supported the establishment of
Theravada Buddhist reform institutions in the Kath-
mandu valley. Inspired by teachers from Sri Lanka,
Burma, Thailand, and India, Newars “entered the
robes” and some founded institutions in the large
cities that are dedicated to the revival of Buddhism
based upon textual study, popular preaching, and lay
meditation.
Beginning with the Anandakut Monastery at
Svayambhufor monks and the Dharmakrti dormitory
for nuns in central Kathmandu, Newars have been or-
dained and have renounced the householder life to live
in these institutions. Technically, the ancient order of
nuns has died out in Theravada countries; the term
anagarikais used locally, although the women conform
to most vinaya rules, including celibacy.
Theravada institutions have been instrumental to
promoting the modernist “Protestant Buddhism” orig-
inating in colonial Sri Lanka. These institutions have
subtly critiqued Newar and Tibetan Mahayana beliefs
and practices, while seeking to revive the faith by pro-
moting textual study and vernacular translations,
scheduling popular preaching, and spreading the prac-
tice of lay meditation. Other independent meditation
centers started by Goenka, a lay teacher from India,
have since the early 1980s gained considerable popu-
larity. Theravada monasteries and meditation centers
are now found in most major towns of the Kathmandu
valley of Nepal.See also:Himalayas, Buddhist Art in; Newari, Bud-
dhist Literature inNEPAL