Encyclopedia of Buddhism

shore” may mean that, in accordance with one’s prac-
tice, one attains the final goal with nothing remaining,
or that one reaches reality-as-it-is (just as all streams
finally return to the ocean), or that one attains the in-
comparable fruition (of awakening).

The group of six paramitas includes DANA(GIV-
ING), ́slla(ethical behavior), ks
anti(patience), vlrya
(endeavor or effort), DHYANA (contemplation or
meditation), and PRAJN


A(WISDOM). Danameans to
give an ordinary gift, to give the gift of the dharma,
or to give the gift of mental peace and tranquility to
another. S ́llameans to honor and practice proper eth-
ical behavior. Ks
anti means to endure hardship.
Vlryameans to strengthen one’s mind and body and
to practice continuously the other five perfections.
Dhyana means to focus one’s mind and make it firm
and stable. Prajñameans to awaken to the defining
characteristics of existence. Of these, the first five can
be understood to describe the practices manifested in
a bodhisattva’s activities of KARUN
A (COMPASSION)
and the last a bodhisattva’s wisdom. Because prajña
is so foundational to the other five perfections, it is
referred to as the “mother of all buddhas.”

When four more perfections—UPAYA(appropriate
action), pran
idhana(vow), bala(strength), and jñana
(understanding)—are added to the former six, the
grouping of ten paramitas is established. Upayameans
that a bodhisattva assists SENTIENT BEINGSby means of
utilizing his expertise (upayakaus ́alya). Pran
idhana
means that having become awakened, a bodhisattva
makes the highest vow to save all sentient beings from
the round of sam
sara. Balarefers to the power to guide
sentient beings to proper spiritual practices. Jñana
refers to the attainment of peace that comes with awak-
ening and the instruction of sentient beings to attain
the all-inclusive wisdom. Along with perfecting one’s
self, these ten perfections serve the purpose of bene-
fiting all sentient beings. These comprise the bo-
dhisattva’s spiritual practices completed on each of the
ten stages of the Das ́abhumika-sutra.

The group of four paramitas refers to an expla-
nation of the perfections found in the S ́uran ̇gama
(samadhi)-sutraand includes permanent perfection—
a perfection that is completely everlasting; bliss
perfection—a perfection that is completely peaceful;
material perfection—a perfection that has the nature
of being completely substantive; and pure perfection—
a perfection that has the nature of being wholesome.
These four can be understood to comprise the four
virtues of one who has attained nirvan
a (the extinc-
tion of the cause of suffering).

The perfections of esoteric Buddhism are focused

on Vairocana Buddha who is located at the center

of the Vajradhatuman
d
ala. These postulate vajra-

paramita (diamond scepter perfection) in the East,

ratna-paramita (jewel perfection) in the South,

dharma-paramita(doctrine perfection) in the West,

and kama-paramita(desire perfection) in the North.

Aside from these, THERAVADABuddhism, in texts

such as Cariyapit
aka, Buddhavam
sa, and Dham-

mapadat
t
hakatha,postulates the following ten per-

fections: dana (charity), slla (ethical behavior),

nekkhamma (liberation), pañña (wisdom), viriya

(endeavor or effort), khanti(patience), sacca(truth),

adhit
t
hana(resolve), metta (loving kindness), and

upekkha(equanimity).

See also:Mahayana; Man
d
ala; PrajñaparamitaLitera-

ture

Bibliography

Conze, Edward, trans. The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom.

Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,

1975.

Dayal, Har. The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sankrit Liter-

ature.London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1932.

Dutt, Nalinaksha, ed. Bodhisattvabhumih
.Patna, India: K. P.

Jayaswal Research Institute, 1978.

Kawamura, Leslie, ed. The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism.

Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1981.

Ogihara, Unrai, ed. Bodhisattva-bhumi: A Statement of Whole

Course of the Bodhisattva.Tokyo: Sankibo Buddhist Book

Store, 1971.

LESLIES. KAWAMURA

PARISH (DANKA, TERAUKE) SYSTEM

IN JAPAN

Parish temples (alternately dannadera, dankadera,or

bodaiji) constitute over 90 percent of Buddhist tem-

ples in contemporary Japan. These terms have their et-

ymology in the Sanskrit word DANA(GIVING) and were

used during the medieval period to refer to major tem-

ple patrons. The broader concept of a “parish” in

Japan, however, emerged during the Tokugawa period

(1603–1868) as the predominant Buddhist temple

affiliation method for ordinary lay members. The

practice of organizing Buddhist adherents into

PARISH(DANKA, TERAUKE) SYSTEM INJAPAN