seminate these particular ideas without reliance on
more traditional oral methods.
Within the texts, the teaching is mainly done
through the use of dialogue between well-known fig-
ures, including the Buddha and his major followers.
The subject matter revolves around long established
debates over the nature of perception and cognition.
The list of terms seldom varies from the Matrka(seed)
categories set up in the ABHIDHARMAgroups. The in-
novation found in the Prajñaparamitais the emphasis
given to the momentary and unique nature of each
moment of cognition and the insights regarding this
process achieved by a special group of adepts known
as BODHISATTVAS.
See also:Sanskrit, Buddhist Literature in
Bibliography
Conze, Edward. The PrajñaparamitaLiterature.The Hague,
Netherlands: Mouton, 1960.
Conze, Edward, trans. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thou-
sand Lines and Its Verse Summary.Bolinas, CA: Four Sea-
sons Foundation, 1973.
Lancaster, Lewis, ed., and Go ́ mez, Luis, assoc. ed. Prajñapara-
mitaand Related Systems: Studies in Honor of Edward Conze.
Berkeley: University of California Regents, 1977.
Lopez, Donald S. Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart
Sutra.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.
LEWISLANCASTERPRATIMOKSA
The pratimoksa (Pali, patimokkha), presumably the old-
est section of the VINAYA, contains the disciplinary code
that regulates the life of the SAN ̇GHA, the Buddhist
monastic community. The etymology of the term
pratimoksais uncertain, but it denotes the highest stan-
dard of conduct for Buddhist monastics. In the early
days of the Buddhist community, the pratimoksa was
apparently a simple profession of faith in the Buddha’s
primary teachings that was recited periodically by the
expanding san ̇gha. Later, the term came to refer to the
corpus of disciplinary rules that developed gradually
over time as the san ̇gha grew and regulations were for-
mulated in response to specific incidents of misconduct.
The pratimoksa is recited twice a month, on the
full moon and new moon days, at an observance
known as san ̇gha posadha(Pali, uposatha). This ob-
servance is a rite of confession in which the actual con-
fession of faults precedes the recitation of precepts and
declaration of purity. The Bhiksupratimoksais recited
by fully ordained MONKSand the Bhiksunlpratimoksa
is recited by fully ordained NUNSin separate obser-
vances; novices and laypeople are not permitted to at-
tend. The semimonthly obligatory recitation of the
pratimoksa is a means of reviewing the ethical guide-
lines and rules of etiquette that the monks and nuns
voluntarily agree to observe, and a time for them to
reaffirm their purity with regard to the prohibitions.
This liturgical observance, conducted within a slma
(ritually established boundary), is a way to ensure har-
mony within the san ̇gha and between the san ̇gha and
the laity. Rituals of REPENTANCE AND CONFESSIONand
specific procedures for expiating offenses are pre-
scribed. The importance of the PRECEPTSis evident in
the Buddha’s declaration that the pratimoksa would
guide the san ̇gha after he passed away.The pratimoksa precepts found in the vinaya
(monastic discipline) regulate the lives of Buddhist
monastics who have received the upasampada (full
ORDINATION), as well as novices and probationers who
are in training. The precepts give detailed instructions
that regulate ethical decision making, food, clothing,
shelter, furnishings, and other material requisites, as
well as the rules that govern etiquette and personal in-
teractions. The extant texts of all schools of vinaya list
five categories of precepts that are common to both
bhiksus and bhiksunls: (1) parajika(defeats that en-
tail expulsion from the san ̇gha, such as killing a hu-
man being or engaging in sexual intercourse); (2)
san ̇ghavas ́esa (remainders that entail suspension,
such as acting as a go-between or baselessly accusing
someone of a parajika); (3) nihsargika-patayantika
(abandoning downfalls that entail forfeiture, such as
keeping excess robes or engaging in business activities);
(4) patayantika(propelling downfalls or lapses, such
as intentionally telling a lie or eating at an improper
time); and (5) s ́aiksa(faults or misdeeds, such as wear-
ing the robes improperly or eating in a careless fash-
ion). There is one additional category for bhiksus, the
two aniyatadharma(individually confessed downfalls),
and one for bhiksunls,the eight pratides ́anlya(offenses
requiring confession). The seven adhikarana-s ́amatha
(methods of resolving disputes) are included in the
pratimoksas of both bhiksus and bhiksunls.These
seven methods include assembling the parties to the
dispute, remembering events, admitting one’s respon-
sibility, resolving matters by a majority decision, and
so forth.PRATIMOKSA