Mahayana expressions developed out of the dars ́ana
complex, which is well documented in the earliest ma-
terials, and were seen as part of the overall institutional
fabric of Indian Mahayana. (Buddha dars ́anarefers to
“seeing” the buddha and entering his nirvanic power,
which leads to spriritual progress.) The core Mahayana
idea is to cultivate a dars ́anicrelationship with the bud-
dha and thus gain awakening, or one could aim at fu-
ture birth in the buddha-field. The genre of Mahayana
literature that developed these ideas was instrumental
in the formation of the tantras. AMITABHABuddha and
his accompanying bodhisattvas, Avalokites ́vara and
Mahasthamaprapta, are the focus of the Pure Land tra-
dition in East Asia.
Pure Land teachings in China
In China, the institutionalization of the Pure Land
teachings and the first line of transmission began with
the founding of the White Lotus Society by HUIYUAN
(334–416) on Mount Lu. This society’s practice was
based on the PRATYUTPANNASAMADHI-SUTRA. The lead
devotee was Liu Yimin, one of the eighteen sages of
Mount Lu, who wrote the society’s manifesto and a
collection of chants. The area became a center of Pure
Land teachings.
The LargerSUKHAVATIVYUHA-SUTRA, a major text in
the tradition, had been translated twice by the mid-
third century. In 402 the Amitabha Sutra(also called
the Amida Sutraor Smaller Sukhavatlvyuha-sutra) and
later the Das ́abhumikavibhasa (Treatise on the Ten
Stages), attributed to NAGARJUNA(ca. second century),
were translated by KUMARAJIVA(350–409/413). The
Guan Wuliangshou jing(Contemplation of the Buddha
of Limitless Life Sutra) is claimed by tradition to have
been translated between 424 and 453, though it is
probably a Chinese or Central Asian composition.
Once these three major sutras and one main com-
mentary became available, the Pure Land teachings
moved away from being solely based on the Pratyut-
pannasamadhi-sutra.
Tanluan (476–542) became interested in Pure Land
teaching through the influence of Bodhiruci (sixth cen-
tury), who translated the Jingtu lun(Discourse on the
Pure Land)attributed to VASUBANDHU(fourth cen-
tury) in 531. Tanluan wrote an extensive commentary
to this work, as well as Zan Amitofo ji(Verses in Praise
of Amida Buddha) and Lüe lun anlejingtu yi (An
Abridged Discourse on the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss).
Tanluan accepted the Das ́abhumikavibhasa’s distinc-
tion of the difficult PATH(the path of sages) and the
easy path (the Pure Land path). He believed that
Amitabha’s Pure Land was the ultimate reality; that
reciting Amitabha’s name (Chinese, nianfo; Sanskrit,
buddhanusmrti) eliminates negative karma; and that
the practice of nianforequires a mind of true “confi-
dence.” He also described how an accumulation of
positive karma aids rebirth and is distributed when re-
turning to aid sentient beings, and he accepted the di-
visions of the dharmakaya into a dharma-nature aspect
and an expedience aspect. Tanluan coined the term
other power,meaning not relying on one’s false notion
of a self and its abilities but on the nirvanic power of
Amitabha, a refinement of the Mahayana concept of
adhisthana (base, power, approach, establish). Ac-
cording to Japanese sources, this constitutes a second
transmission lineage.
One of the greatest successors in Tanluan’s line is
Daochuo (562–645), who, inspired by Tanluan’s writ-
ings, wrote Anle ji(A Collection of[Passages Concern-
ing Birth in the Land of] Peace and Bliss), and
promoted the idea of the DECLINE OF THE DHARMAand
the idea that the nianfosamadhi was the highest sam-
adhi. Shandao (613–681) was the most influential
master in this lineage. At first he studied on Mount
Lu and achieved some success practicing according to
the Pratyutpannasamadhi-sutra. He later became
Daochuo’s disciple and was able to attain the nianfo
samadhi. Shandao reaffirmed Tanluan’s and
Daochuo’s positions while developing further the
overall doctrine. Although he discussed many Pure
Land practices, he placed great emphasis on nianfo; he
taught that nianfowas sufficient for rebirth in the Pure
Land and that Amitabha was a sambhogakayabuddha.
Shandao delineated three types of confidence: sincere
confidence, deep confidence, and confidence that
seeks rebirth. Shandao also taught visualization meth-
ods and repentance, and developed the famous para-
ble of the two rivers (fire-anger and water-greed) and
the white path (the Pure Land path leading from
SAMSARAto NIRVANA) over the rivers. On the near side
S ́akyamuni stands, indicating that we should cross. On
the far side, Amitabha stands, indicating that we
should come.
A third line of Pure Land began with Cimin (680–
748), who had traveled in India and began spreading
Pure Land teachings after his return. Cimin composed
Jingtu cibei ji(The Pure Land Compassion Collection;
partially extant), Xifang zan(Western Quarter Chant),
and Pratyutpannasamadhi Chant.His teachings em-
phasized meditation, study, recitation, and precepts.
The line that developed from the Pratyutpannasamadhi-
sutraalso become part of the TIANTAI SCHOOLas ZHIYIPURELANDSCHOOLS