demons (YAKSA). These divinities constituted the tem-
plate for the organization of the premodern Japanese
pantheon: As part of mandala they were provisional
manifestations of the Buddha, and therefore entitled
to a place in the Buddhist cosmos. In other words, Bud-
dhism provided in Japan a new and broader cosmo-
logical framework in which to insert all (or most)
forms of local sacred entities. During the Middle Ages,
furthermore, mandalas were also used as conceptual
models to represent the sacred space of kamishrines.
In these images, the kamiare usually represented both
as “traces” (suijaku) with their earthly forms (animals,
human beings) and as “original grounds” (honji), that
is, buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Esoteric Buddhism also influenced doctrines and
rituals concerning the kami.Several schools of esoteric
Shintoteachings developed at major cult sites, such as
the Ise outer shrine, Hie shrine (affiliated with the
Tendai monastery Enryakuji), and the Shingon
monastery Omiwadera (or Daigorinji). They all dis-
cussed issues of the honji suijakuparadigm, each from
its own sectarian perspective and with its own Bud-
dhist vocabulary. At the same time, these centers also
developed a vast body of esoteric rituals dealing with
the kami.Especially significant among them were ini-
tiation rituals on kamimatters (jingi kanjo or shinto
kanjo), directly modeled on esoteric initiation rituals
(denbokanjo), but also rituals for specific professions
(e.g., carpenters, merchants, farmers) involving deities
of the honji suijakuuniverse. In this respect, the pre-
viously discussed Yoshida tradition has a particular po-
sition in that it absorbed several elements from esoteric
Buddhism (such as the gomafire ceremony and the
notion of originals and traces), but developed them in
an anti-Buddhist direction.
See also:Cosmology; Folk Religion, Japan; Ghosts and
Spirits; Japanese Royal Family and Buddhism; Local
Divinities and Buddhism; Meiji Buddhist Reform;
Shingon Buddhism, Japan; Shugendo; Space, Sacred
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