scarves. The international Tang style is apparent in the
thin clothes and fluid folds. The complex but precise
iconometry of the cave and the figures creates a sense
of harmony in the monument.
See also:Cave Sanctuaries; Huayan Art; Korea, Bud-
dhist Art in; Monastic Architecture; Stupa
Bibliography
Harrell, Mark. “Sokkuram—Buddhist Monument and Political
Statement in Korea.” World Archaeology27, no. 2 (October
1995): 318–335.
Hwang Su-young. Sokkuram Cave Temple.Photos by Ahn Jang-
heon. Seoul: Yekyong Publications, 1989.
Kang Woo-bang. “Bulguksa Temple and Seokbulsa Temple.”
Korea Journal41, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 320–344.
Park Hyounggook. “A Discussion on the Sculptured Images in
Niches at the So ̆kkuram Cave Temple of Kyo ̆ngju—with a
Focus on the Restoration of Vimalakrti, Mañjus ́ri and Eight
Bodhisattvas.” Ars Buddhicano. 239 (July 1998): 50–72.
JUNGHEELEESO ̆N SCHOOL. SeeChan School
SOTERIOLOGY
Soteriology (from Greek soter,“healer”) is the study of
salvation. Soteriology is an important area of theology,
especially in Christianity. Although it is a problematic
term for Buddhists, most of whom (with the notable
exception of Pure Land Buddhists) do not see salva-
tion as occurring primarily through the agency of an
external power, soteriology is being adopted in con-
temporary Buddhist scholarship to denote the study of
the Buddhist PATH.
DANCOZORTSOTO ZEN. SeeChan School
SOUTHEAST ASIA, BUDDHIST ART IN
The earliest Buddhist art in Southeast Asia dates to
about the sixth century C.E. These sculptures, primar-
ily BUDDHA IMAGES, show close stylistic and icono-
graphical relationships with Indian images. Contact
between Southeast Asia and India occurred earlier, by
the beginning of the common era as attested by Chi-
nese literary sources and small scattered finds, such as
Indian coins and glyptics. The motivation for contact
was trade, primarily between India and China, with
Southeast Asia being initially less a destination than a
stopover between them. Southeast Asia was exposed to
both Indian religions—Buddhism and Hinduism—
during this process, not in terms of proselytization or
colonization but from haphazard meetings of locals
with Indian merchants and crew. While this perhaps
helps to explain the late appearance of Buddhist art in
Southeast Asia, it does not explain how thoroughly
Buddhism and its art, from the sixth century on, were
adopted and indigenized within the region.
The modern nation-states of Southeast Asia are a
poor model for organizing geographically the early
Buddhist art. The people who made the earliest Bud-
dhist art were the Pyu, Mon, Khmer, and Cham peo-
ples on the mainland. These categories are not clear-cut,
and are linguistically based on vernacular inscriptions.
The Indonesian islands and the Malay Peninsula pre-
sent a number of linguistic groups as well.The mainland: Pyu, Mon, Khmer, and Cham
The Pyu lived in central and northern areas of Burma,
with S ́rKsetra (modern Prome) offering the most
Buddhist artifacts. These include three enormous tube-
shaped brick stupas (the Bawbawgui STUPAis 150 feet
tall) and several small brick temples that housed Bud-
dha images. In addition, many metal and stone images
of the Buddha and thousands of clay votive tablets were
found. The discovery of twenty gold leaves (each 6-1/2
by 1-1/4 inches) bound as a manuscript, with sections
from the abhidammaand vinayapitakainscribed in
Pali, suggests relationships with THERAVADAtradi-
tions. Indeed, some scholars feel this is the earliest ex-
tant Pali manuscript, dating on the basis of its epigraphy
to around the fifth century C.E.
The Mon lived in southern Burma and in Thailand.
They, like the Pyu, were predominantly Buddhists, and
they also inscribed in stone Pali verses that relate
closely to texts. The presence of images of bodhisattvas
and some JATAKAreliefs indicate that the Mon were
aware of Sanskrit Buddhist traditions as well. The Mon
in Thailand (whose “kingdom” is often referred to as
Dvaravat) had a brilliant sculptural tradition and have
left extensive numbers of Buddhist images in stone,
bronze, and clay. In addition, they produced severalSO ̆NSCHOOL