be a perfect circle, was interrupted by L-shaped en-
trances at the four cardinal points, creating a cosmo-
logical diagram in the form of an auspicious svastika
cross. An example of this early type of stupa is that at
Svayambhu Nath near Kathmandu; this stupa has been
worshiped for more than two thousand years.
This basic architectural scheme bears, in its sim-
plicity, an infinite potential for variations dictated by
local traditions, materials, and religious trends. Its cru-
cial importance in the development of sacred build-
ings throughout Buddhist Asia, extending roughly
from today’s eastern Afghanistan throughout Central,
East, and Southeast Asia, cannot be overestimated.
Early Pali texts do not pay much attention to the
actual building of a stupa because its construction,
maintenance, and worship were the concern of the
LAITY. Later, however, the building process became the
focus of intense metaphysical speculation. Each part of
the stupa, beginning from the terraces at its base, to
the number of parasols on the chattravali, became im-
bued with a profound meaning, variously interpreted
by different schools.
Central India: Stupas at Sañcland Bharhut
The greatest artistic expressions of early Buddhist tra-
dition are the monuments at SAN
CIand Bharhut, in
Madhya Pradesh, seats of two of the most important
Buddhist communities from the third century B.C.E.
Among the oldest surviving stupas is Stupa II at Sañc,
which dates from the S ́un ̇ga period (second to first cen-
turies B.C.E.). This simple monument housed the relics
of several Buddhist teachers; the relics were enclosed
in caskets and buried within the stupa’s solid mass. Of
great interest are the interior and exterior surfaces of
the stone vedika, obviously a replica of a wooden pro-
totype, embellished with sets of vigorously carved
medallions. Especially elaborate are the reliefs on the
pillars flanking the L-shaped entrances at the four car-
dinal points.
Dating from this early period is the now ruined ma-
hastupa(great stupa) discovered by Alexander Cun-
nigham in 1873 at Bharhut. The conspicuous size of
the monument, whose diameter measures more than
twenty meters, the care lavished on the decoration of
the sandstone vedika, some three meters in height, and
the monumental toranas(entryways) bear witness to
the affluence of this commercial town, located on one
of the major trade routes of ancient India. Although
inscriptions on the vedikaand the eastern toranapro-
claim that they were erected during the S ́un ̇ga period
(possibly between 100 and 80 B.C.E.), the stupa is prob-
ably earlier in date, because it was customary to add
vedikasand toranasto earlier buildings. The torana
consists of two upright pillars supporting three archi-
traves spanning the entry to the stupa complex. The
crossbars of the vedikaare adorned with medallions
displaying floral motifs, human figures, and JATAKA
scenes. On the vedika’s terminal uprights are carved
single figures, including standing warriors, equestrian
figures, and yakssclutching a tree. Animals, plants,
creepers, geometrical motifs, and scenes from Bud-
dha’s life are among the subjects carved on the torana.
Most of the remains of this railing are now displayed
at the Indian Museum in Calcutta and in the Allahabad
Museum.The celebrated SañcStupa I was built between the
third century B.C.E. and the first century C.E., with ad-
ditions of the fifth century C.E. This imposing monu-
ment, measuring 36.6 meters in diameter, rises on top
of the hill at Sañc. The solid hemisphere is truncated
at the top by a harmika(pedestal supporting the shaft
of the umbrella) crowned by a three-tiered stone um-
brella and set within a square railing. A circular ter-
race accessed by two staircases runs along the base of
the anda. At ground level is a stone-paved circumam-
bulation path encircled by a vedikathat is interrupted
at the four cardinal points by imposing toranas.The present stupa, dating from roughly the second
century B.C.E., encases an older one that was built prob-
ably a century earlier. Its plain surface contrasts with the
wealth of images carved on the vedika. Medallions dis-
play floral, animal, and bird motifs, as well as human
figures and mythical beings. The balustrade is divided
into four sections defined by the L-shaped toranas,
which were erected in the first century C.E. These are
similar in design and construction technique to those at
Bharhut, and they are covered with sculptures, whose
liveliness and variety of subject matter are unsurpassed.
The most famous scenes illustrate episodes from the
jatakasand from the life of the Buddha.As in the case of the previous monuments, Gautama
is never represented in human form, but by emblems,
such as an empty throne beneath the bodhi tree, foot-
prints, the triratna (three REFUGES), and finally the
stupa. Salient events of his life and career have pride
of place, such as his birth, the temptation of MARA, the
first sermon at Sarnath, the conversion of the Kas ́yapa
brothers, and the miracles at S ́ravastand Kapilavastu.
Episodes that followed his death (e.g., the fight over
the Buddha’s relics) have also been illustrated. The pre-STUPA