culminates in the Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) teach-
ing. The Zur clan was also involved in Rnying ma de-
fense, and Zur chen and Zur chung put together the
earliest Rnying ma rgyud ’bum(Old Tantric Canon).
Another Rnying ma response became the develop-
ment of the “treasure” literature (gter ma), grounded
in indigenous scriptural composition during the tenth
century, when Central Tibet was isolated. Scriptural
composition was normative Buddhist behavior, liber-
ating the intention of the Buddha from excessive lit-
eralness. In India, the practice was inhibited by
various conservative strategies, but Tibetans began to
stretch the form in creative ways. By the eleventh cen-
tury, they realized that texts revealed in Tibet could
not be justified on standard literary grounds. They
therefore formulated the ideology that these works
had been hidden, physically or spiritually, as treasures
by saints of the Royal dynasty. Many of these early
treasures were dedicated to the Great Perfection view
and practices.
In 1042 the important Indian missionary, ATISHA
Dpamkara S ́rjñana (982–1054), arrived, invited by
the Gu ge king. Atisha introduced the popular Bengali
cult of the goddess Taraand reframed tantric Bud-
dhism as an advanced practice on a continuum with
monastic and Mahayana Buddhism. This systematiza-
tion, already known in India, became designated the
triple discipline (trisamvara: the monastic, bodhi-
sattva, and tantric vows) and Atisha embedded this
ideal in his Bodhipathapradlpa(Lamp for the Path to
Awakening). Atisha also promoted the basic Mahayana
curriculum of his monastery Vikramas ́la, where works
like S ́ANTIDEVA’SBODHICARYAVATARA(Introduction to
the Conduct That Leads to the Enlightenment) were fun-
damental to monastic stability. Atisha’s lay lama dis-
ciple ’Brom ston Rgyal ba’i byung gnas (1004–1064)
founded the monastery of Rwa sgreng in Central Ti-
bet (1057) and organized the Bka’ gdams pa order.
The tantric orders evolved out of the activity of the
early Central Tibetan translators. Preeminent were the
various traditions of the Dwags po Bka’ brgyud that
derived from MAR PA (MARPA, 1002/1012–1097).
While some of Mar pa’s disciples were concerned with
tantric scholarship, it was Mar pa’s poet disciple
MILARASPA(MILAREPA, (1028/40–1111/23), and Mi-
larepa’s disciple Sgam po pa, who effectively grounded
the tradition in both tantric and monastic practice.
Likewise, ’Brog mi’s center in Mu gu lung did not last,
but his later follower ’Khon Dkon mchog rgyal po
(1034–1102) founded SA SKYA(SAKYA) Monastery in
1073, and the Sa skya order became widely acknowl-
edged through the influence and learning of ’Khon
clan members. Beyond these, many smaller lineages
were received from Indian masters but only partially
succeeded in the institutionalization process of the
twelfth century, eventually becoming subsets of one
or another of the major orders.Tanguts, Mongols, and Buddhist efflorescence
in the twelfth to fourteenth centuries
By the twelfth century, small lineages began develop-
ing into specific orders that compiled the writings of
exemplary figures. The initial cloisters were expanded,
becoming “mother” monasteries for a series of satel-
lite temples and monasteries. Orders established do-
minion in their areas, so that lay practice tended to
come under the aegis of important teachers. Buddhist
doctrinal and philosophical material became an im-
portant part of the curriculum. Translation activity
continued, but with an emphasis on the revision of
previous translations. A CANONof translated scripture
and exegesis was compiled throughout this period, so
that by the end of the fourteenth century its major out-
lines became relatively clear. Finally, the aura of the
emerging orders attracted the interest of Central Asian
potentates, beginning with the Tanguts and extending
to the grandsons of Genghis Khan.
The Rnying ma order had coalesced around the re-
ceived teachings derived from the Royal dynastic pe-
riod, whether transmitted in a human succession (bka’
ma) or as revealed treasure teachings (gter ma). Pre-
eminently, Vimalamitra and Padmasambhava among
the Indians, and Bai ro tsa na among the Tibetans, were
the mythic sources for treasure scriptures. The impor-
tant treasure finder Nyang ral Nyi ma ‘od zer
(1142–1192) and his school in southern Tibet pro-
moted Padmasambhava over other figures. From
Nyang ral’s group came the Mani Bka’ ‘bum,the ve-
hicle for the spread of the cult of Avalokites ́vara as the
special protector of Tibet, purportedly embodied in
Emperor Srong btsan sgam po. Treasure hagiographies
of Padmasambhava by U rgyan gling pa (1323–?) have
proven classics of the genre. Karma gling pa revealed
the Bar do thos grol,widely known in the West as the
TIBETANBOOK OF THEDEAD. Although Rnying ma
philosophical authors were relatively few, Klong chen
rab ‘byams pa (1308–1363) set the standard for tantric
scholarship. Basing himself on treasures of the Snying
thig(seminal drop) tradition of the Great Perfection,
Klong chen pa authored important discussions of Rny-
ing ma theory and practice.TIBET