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ACADEMIC SELF-MANAGEMENT 23All students need to learn “fix-up” strategies to remedy learning
problems. That is, they need to learn what to do after they find that
they do not understand certain content. Often, different methods or
strategies for learning must be undertaken (e.g., asking and answer-
ing questions) instead of continuing with the same ineffective strategy
(e.g., underlining the content in a textbook).Strategic-outcome monitoring occurs when students focus
their attention on links between learning outcomes and
strategic processes to determine effectiveness. (p. 11)The final stage in the cycle involves expanding your monitoring to
include performance outcomes. The following questions must be
answered: “Did the learning plan or strategy help me attain my goal?”
“Did I have to make changes in my learning and study methods?”
For example, you may have developed a strategy for studying for an
objective test for the first examination of the term. You used the same
strategy for a second examination, an essay test. Was the study strat-
egy effective for both tests?
The cycle keeps going as self-observation is used to evaluate your
exam performance by determining what questions you missed and the
location of the information (i.e., notes or readings). A self-directed
learner is constantly monitoring learning outcomes to determine
whether different strategies are needed to attain goals and maintain a
high level of academic success.
When researchers study expert performance in such fields as music,
sports, medicine, chess, and reading, they find a common element in
their learning. Initially, experts depend on instruction from others, and
with time, they increasingly rely on their self-observation and self-
judgments about their behavior. The ability to self-manage enables
experts to profit a great deal from practice and study by themselves
without assistance from their coaches and teachers (Glaser, 1996).
Zimmerman et al. (1996) believe that one of the major advantages
of using the self-management process is that it can improve not only
one’s learning, but it can enhance one’s perception of self-confidence
and control over the learning process. By learning to self-observe your
current learning and study behavior, and by determining for yourself
what methods are effective and ineffective, you can begin replacing
ineffective methods with better ones and can become more aware of
the improved effectiveness of these new strategies. This process helps
you to become a more self-directed or self-regulated learner.
The first exercise in the Follow-up Activities section of this book,
beginning with chapter 5, identifies a topic and questions related to
each of the four processes just discussed to change or modify your
behavior. These questions provide the structure for conducting your