are several goons and that one of them has a gun in his hand. In 41, there is only
one goon, and he just happens to have a gun in his hand. A similar situation ex-
ists in sentences 42 and 43: In 42, we understand that Buggsy has more than one
girlfriend and that the one named Rita loved Porsches; in 43, Buggsy has one
girlfriend, she loved Porsches, and her name just happens to be Rita.
What differentiates the sentences in each case is the nature of the modifi-
ers. Note that the PPwith a gun in his handand the NPRitain sentences 40
and 42, respectively, are not set off with punctuation, whereas in 41 and 43
they are. Moreover, the PP in sentence 40definesthe goon, distinguishing
him from others. The same can be said of the NPRitain sentence 42. In sen-
tences 41 and 43, on the other hand, the modifiers are set off with commas,
andtheysimplysupplyadditionalinformation, not defining information. We
use the termsrestrictiveandnonrestrictivemodification to differentiate the
two types of structures. Restrictive modifiers provide defining information
and are not punctuated. Nonrestrictive modifiers provide nondefining infor-
mation and are punctuated.
Teaching Tip
Restrictive and nonrestrictive modification is one of the more confusing topics
in writing classes. By the time students reach high school, for example, a ma-
jority will use nonrestrictive modification when they should use restrictive, and
vice versa. We see this most frequently with regard to the titles of literary
works, with students regularly producing sentences such as:- ?Steinbeck’s novel, The Grapes of Wrath, was inspired by the wave of so-
cialism that swept America in the 1930s.
The problem here is that Steinbeck wrote several novels, not just one. Be-
cause the title is punctuated as a nonrestrictive modifier, the writer commu-
nicates that he or she believes otherwise—not a good position to be in if
writing for an audience that knows anything at all about John Steinbeck. The
correct form is: - Steinbeck’s novel The Grapes of Wrathwas inspired by the wave of social-
ism that swept America in the 1930s.
Most students have a hard time remembering the terms “restrictive” and “non-
restrictive,” so in many cases it is easier to focus on the role of punctuation.
When there is no punctuation around the modifier—when it functions restric-
tively, in other words—the modifier is defining one among many. When there is
punctuation around the modifier—when it functions nonrestrictively—the
modifier is nondefining, just supplying additional information, and there is only
one. Of course, one needs a certain amount of knowledge in some situations
to make this distinction. If a student doesn’t know anything about Steinbeck,
determining the correct punctuation is a real problem. But solving the prob-
lem offers opportunities for learning.
PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR 135