Grammar in the Middle Ages
Roman education concentrated on what is known asthe seven artsof the triv-
ium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and thequadrivium(music, arithmetic, ge-
ometry, and astronomy). When the Roman Empire collapsed around 475 AD,
the educational system that had been in place throughout the Mediterranean for
a thousand years disappeared. Within two generations, near universal illiteracy
replaced near universal literacy.
The significance of the Greco-Roman education system with respect to
grammar was at least twofold. As the Empire expanded, it provided schools or
modified curricula in existing schools to meet Roman standards. Grammar in-
struction throughout Europe therefore had a coherent orientation that empha-
sized adherence to a literary norm. However, after the Empire collapsed, the
fragmented European societies had a new Golden Age—the time of the Em-
pire—and Latin was their bridge to a more civilized and sophisticated past.
The Church emerged from the collapse of civilization not only as the most pow-
erful social force in Europe but also as the sole repository of classical knowledge.
Soon it found itself in a difficult position. For at least 200 years before the fall of the
Empire, the Church had been a fierce opponent of education. “The wisdom of man
is foolish before God” was a favorite expression among the clergy. But rampant il-
literacy was an obstacle to priesthood; a priest who could not read could not in-
struct parishioners in the lessons of the Bible. In this context, knowledge of Latin
also became a source of power. Although the Venerable Bede translated portions of
the Bible into English as early as the end of the 7thcentury, vernacular translations
were rare and essentially uncirculated. Nearly all copies of the Bible existed only in
Latin. Thus, even as the Latin language was changing rapidly into Spanish, Italian,
French, and Portuguese, the Church schools continued to use Latin as the basis of
instruction and continued to teach Latin grammar. When Latin ceased being a liv-
ing language—that is, when it no longer had any native speakers—the only way to
learn it was through mastering its complex grammar.
In the Middle Ages, then, we see a fundamental shift in the nature of educa-
tion from the secular to the religious. The focus was not on providing universal
education but rather on providing a religious education to a select few. More-
over, the goal was not to develop more enlightened and productive citizens but
rather to maintain a steady flow of literate priests. Even many kings were illiter-
ate. Latin became the prestige language, much as Greek had been during the
Empire, and educated people—that is, members of the priesthood—were ex-
pected to be bilingual, with Latin as their second language.
Nevertheless, Church leaders saw no need to reinvent the wheel. The system
of religious education that developed drew heavily on the Roman model. The
A SHORT HISTORY OF GRAMMAR 7