202 CHAPTER 6
Sentences 1 and 2 are grammatically identical, consisting of a noun phrase, a
linking verb, and a prepositional phrase. Their opposite meanings result from
their conceptually different prepositions, not from their grammar. Our ability
to formulate these sentences is based on our ability to establish logical proposi-
tions for the mental model ofthe bookandthe tablethrough what Fauconnier
and Turner (2002) calledconceptual blending. Meaning in this case is not re-
lated to grammar but to the underlying logical propositions, which define the
location ofthe bookwith respect tothe table.
On this basis, cognitive grammar suggests that some language errors, as well
as misunderstandings, are related to different experiences, backgrounds, or
knowledge. The English prepositionsonandin,for example, are notoriously
difficult for nonnative speakers of English: We getina car, but we getona train,
bus, and airplane. Many languages, such as Spanish, have a single preposition
(en) that serves as bothonandin.As a result, native Spanish speakers will not
have different conceptual categories for these prepositions. Teaching the gram-
mar of prepositions and prepositional phrases will have only a modest effect on
performance because the mental model related to being inside a car, train, or
bus does not build the necessary concepts.
Teaching Tip
An effective strategy at the elementary level, where we find most of our nonna-
tive English speakers, is to use pictures to help students visualize (and thereby
internalize) the conceptual relations associated with the prepositions “in” and
“on.” For vehicles, the conceptual relation involves not only size but also
whether the transport is public or private. Thus, we get in small, personal vehi-
cles—cars, trucks, SUVs, and mini-vans—but we get on trains, buses, trolleys,
and airplanes. When students see the pictures and appropriate example sen-
tences underneath, they form mental models of the conceptual relations.Language Is Grounded in Experience
Although language appears to be innate in many respects, we cannot say the
same about communicative competence, particularly with regard to how we
convey and interpret meaning. Cognitive grammar endorses the Lockean per-
spective that ideas and meaning are grounded in experience, which varies
from person to person. Differences exist because people have different histo-
ries. Children, for example, may be born with an innate sense of morality, but
it must be developed through input and guidance, which may explain why the
first several years of parenting involve intense focus on appropriate versus in-
appropriate behavior, on the moral education of the child. The fact that par-
ents in all cultures, without any conscious consideration of what they are
doing, devote so much attention to helping their children develop language