speech of those people who are considered as models for others to copy. In a
nation in which many different dialects are spoken, a national language
may be developed and a normative grammar and dictionary produced.
see also prescriptive grammar, standard varietynorm-referenced test(ing) n
a test that measures how the performance of a particular test taker or group
of test takers compares with the performance of another test taker or group
of test takers whose scores are given as the norm. A test taker’s score is
therefore interpreted with reference to the scores of other test takers or
groups of test takers, rather than to an agreed criterion score, which is the
case with a criterion-referenced test.
notation nnotate v
alsotranscription
the use of symbols (see phonetic symbols) to show sounds or sound
sequences in written form. There are different systems of phonetic symbols.
One of the most commonly used is that of the International Phonetic
Association.
A distinction is made between two types of notation:
1 Phonemic notation uses only the distinctive sounds of a language
(phonemes). It does not show the finer points of pronunciation.
Phonemic notation is written within slanting brackets.
For example, the English wordfoot may appear in phonemic notation as
/fät /. /f/, /ä/, and /t / are phonemes of English. Phonemic notation may be
used, for example:
afor languages which have no writing system of their own
bfor teaching purposes, to show differences in pronunciation, e.g. / hed /
headand /hæt/ hat.
2 Phonetic notation (also phonetic script) uses phonetic symbols for vari-
ous sounds, including symbols to show in detail how a particular sound
is pronounced. It is used to show finer points of pronunciation.
Phonetic notation is written in square brackets. For example, the English
word pin may appear in phonetic notation as [phin] with the raised h
showing the aspiration of the [p].
In phonemic notation, pin would be rendered as /pin/.
Phonetic notation may be used, for example:
ato show the different pronunciation of closely related dialects
bto show the pronunciation of individual speakers or groups of speakers.
For example, students learning English may use a dental
t-sound, shown by [+], instead of the alveolar [t] commonly used in
English.
norm-referenced test(ing)