Notes 295
that evaluates the strategic roles of a variety of communications disciplines and com-
bines these disciplines to provide clarity, consistency, and maximum communications’
impact through the seamless integration of discrete messages.
Advertising is any paid form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of
ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor. Developing an advertising program
involves setting objectives, setting a budget, choosing the advertising message, deter-
mining how the message will be generated, evaluating and selecting messages, execut-
ing the message, developing media strategies by establishing the ad’s desired reach,
frequency, and impact and then choosing the media that will deliver the desired
results, and evaluating the communication and sales effects of the advertising.
Sales promotion consists of a diverse collection of incentive tools, mostly short
term, that are designed to stimulate trial or quicker or greater purchase of particular
goods or services by consumers or the trade. Sales promotion includes tools for con-
sumer promotion, trade promotion, and business- and sales force promotion. In using
sales promotion, as in using advertising, a company must set its objectives, select the
tools, develop the program, pretest the program, implement and control it, and eval-
uate the results. Although the use of sales promotion is growing—and the technique
tends to increase sales and market share in the short run—it is not generally consid-
ered a long-term brand-building technique.
A public is any group that has an actual or potential interest in or impact on a
company’s ability to achieve its objectives. Public relations (PR) involves a variety of
programs designed to promote or protect a company’s image or its individual prod-
ucts. Marketing public relations (MPR) is often used to support corporate or product
promotion and image-building. MPR can affect public awareness at a fraction of the
cost of advertising, and is often much more credible. The main tools of PR are publi-
cations, events, news, speeches, public-service activities, and identity media.
In considering when and how to use MPR, management must establish the mar-
keting objectives, choose the PR messages and vehicles, implement the plan carefully,
and evaluate the results. Results are usually evaluated in terms of number of exposures
and cost savings; awareness, comprehension, or attitude changes; and sales-and-profit
contribution.
NOTES
- John Bigness, “Back to Brand New Life,”Chicago Tribune,October 4, 1998; Chris Reidy,
“Putting on the Dog to be Arnold’s Job,”Boston Globe,August 28, 1998. - See Michael L. Ray, Advertising and Communications Management(Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1982). - “FedEx Will Quit Joking Around Overseas,”Los Angeles Times,January 21, 1997, p. B20.
- See Ayn E. Crowley and Wayne D. Hoyer, “An Integrative Framework for Understanding
Two-Sided Persuasion,”Journal of Consumer Research,March 1994, pp. 561–74. - See C. I. Hovland, A. A. Lumsdaine, and F. D. Sheffield,Experiments on Mass Communication,
vol. 3 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1948), ch. 8; and Crowley and Hoyer, “An
Integrative Framework.” For an alternative viewpoint, see George E. Belch, “The Effects of
Message Modality on One- and Two-Sided Advertising Messages,” in Advances in Consumer
Research,eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice M. Tybout (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for
Consumer Research, 1983), pp. 21–26. - Curtis P. Haugtvedt and Duane T. Wegener, “Message Order Effects in Persuasion: An
Attitude Strength Perspective,”Journal of Consumer Research,June 1994, pp. 205–18; H. Rao
Unnava, Robert E. Burnkrant, and Sunil Erevelles, “Effects of Presentation Order and