was based on sexual energy (libido) as the
driving force.- Erik Erikson’s theories focused on both social
and psychological development across the life
span. He proposed eight stages of psycho-
social development; each stage includes
a developmental task and a virtue to be
achieved (hope, will, purpose, fidelity, love,
caring, and wisdom). Erikson’s theories
remain in wide use today. - Jean Piaget described four stages of cognitive
development: sensorimotor; preoperational;
concrete operations; and formal operations. - Harry Stack Sullivan’s theories focused on
development in terms of interpersonal rela-
tionships. He viewed the therapist’s role
(termed participant observer) as key to the
client’s treatment. - Hildegard Peplau is a nursing theorist whose
theories formed much of the foundation of
modern nursing practice including the thera-
peutic nurse–patient relationship, the role of
the nurse in the relationship, and the four
anxiety levels.- Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of
needs stating that people were motivated by
progressive levels of needs; each level must
be satisfied before the person can progress to
the next level. The levels begin with physio-
logic needs, then proceed to safety and secu-
rity needs, belonging needs, esteem needs,
and finally reach self-actualization needs. - Carl Rogers developed client-centered ther-
apy in which the therapist plays a supportive
role, demonstrating unconditional positive
regard, genuineness, and empathetic under-
standing to the client. - Behaviorism focuses on the client’s observable
performance and behaviors and external
influences that can bring about behavior
changes, rather than focusing on feelings
and thoughts. - Systematic desensitization is an example
of conditioning in which a person who has
an excessive fear of something, such as
frogs or snakes, learns to manage his or her
anxiety response to being exposed to the
feared object. - B. F. Skinner is a behaviorist who developed
the theory of operant conditioning in which
people are motivated to learn behavior or
change behavior with a system of rewards or
reinforcement. - Existential theorists believe that problems
result when the person is out of touch with
the self or the environment. The person has
self-imposed restrictions, criticizes himself or
3 PSYCHOSOCIALTHEORIES ANDTHERAPY 67
Critical Thinking Questions
1.Can sound parenting and nurturing in a loving
environment overcome a genetic or biologic
predisposition to mental illness?
2.Can children raised in a hostile environment
without parental love, support, and consis-
tency avoid mental health problems as adults?
If so, how, or what factors could help a person
overcome a neglected or traumatic childhood?I NTERNET R ESOURCES
Resource Internet Address
◗Albert Ellis Institute
(Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy) http://www.rebt.org
◗National Association of Cognitive
Behavioral Therapists http://www.nacbt.org
◗Beck Institute for Cognitive
Therapy and Research http://www.beckinstitute.org
◗American Group Psychotherapy Association http://www.groupsinc.org