as the Ônin War, and lasted until 1477, after which it spread to the
provinces until the rise of dominant daimyo.
The gradual breakdown of central government and the rise of power-
ful warlords who controlled independent domains led to internal strife that
climaxed in a period of intense warfare known as the Sengoku period
(1477–1573). The period was characterized by the inability of the Ashikaga
shogunate to assert control over daimyo who sought to establish their do-
mains as independent states and who asserted direct control over individual
villages. Between 1500 and 1568 new smaller domains were ruled effec-
tively by local chieftains, called Sengoku daimyo, who were a new breed of
territorial rulers. Some of them rose to power from the lower echelons, but
the majority were local powerful warriors (kokujin). During that period
there was an emphasis on true ability and much less emphasis on name or
status; what concerned these daimyo most was the idea of tôgoku kyôhei—
enrich the domain and strengthen the military. This principle prompted the
daimyo to find various ways to improve their domain’s economy by pro-
moting trade and production. In addition, the Sengoku daimyo established
a type of hierarchical relationship with their vassals, separating them into
two groups, fudaiand tôzama.The fudai were close to the daimyo and were
expected to show more loyalty to him, while the tôzama vassals were less
loyal to the daimyo and more concerned with practical benefits.
The primary concern for the Sengoku daimyo was control of land,
which dictated both defensive and offensive strategies. To improve their
military capability, many of the daimyo studied Sunzi’s Art of War(Chinese
book of military strategy) and frequently consulted the Yijing(I Ching,
“The Book of Changes,” a Confucian classic on divination). Their war-
riors, to whom the saying “call a warrior a dog, call a warrior a beast, but
winning is his business” was directed, worked on improving their fencing
skills, as well as their archery, among other weapons. In these chaotic times
many vassals and warriors at various levels were primarily concerned with
their own survival, rather than the well-being of their lord. More than in
any other period in Japanese history, loyalty was a conditional situation, in
which reciprocity dictated the nature of service and degree of loyalty.
Due to the unstable nature of the warriors’ behavior, daimyo com-
posed “house laws” (kahô) for their domains. An important aspect of the
kahô was their emphasis on lawful behavior within the domain, as ex-
pressed in the kenka ryô seibai(mutual judgment of a quarrel). According
to this principle, warriors who engaged in fighting had to be punished, re-
gardless of who was the instigator or who was at fault. The Imagawa fam-
ily’s kahô even stated that the punishment would be death by execution.
The Takeda house, though not specifying a punishment, proclaimed that
whoever supported the fight, even without actually participating in it,188 Japan