fact, some of these weapons were converted to modern use and are cur-
rently part of standard equipment for riot police units.
Engaging in Battle
Engaging in battle has always been a distinct part of warfare in Japan. His-
torians identify two general types of engagements: predetermined battle
and surprise attack. The predetermined battle theoretically included five
stages, as follows: the setting of the time and place, exchange of envoys to
declare each side’s intention to engage in battle, exchange of humming ar-
rows (kaburaya) to mark the beginning of battle, massive exchange of ar-
rows between the armies while advancing toward each other, and close
combat using swords and daggers while occasionally utilizing grappling
techniques. However, most battles were probably conducted without for-
mal exchanges. That is, the armies met on the battlefield and exchanged
humming arrows as a marker to their own troops to begin shooting ar-
rows. Then they closed distance until they engaged in close combat using
bladed weapons. Military confrontations according to these stages contin-
ued even during the Sengoku period, with some variations resulting from
changing attitudes and technology.
Surprise attacks, on the other hand, relied heavily on preliminary in-
telligence gathering concerning the exact location of the enemy’s forces,
number of warriors, terrain, and equipment. These attacks were commonly
carried out at night or early dawn and were led by warriors who rushed to
be first in battle, as such an initiative was highly regarded and well re-
warded. Another characteristic of the surprise attack was the relatively
small number of troops participating in it. Rarely were many troops in-
volved in a surprise attack. Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s midnight march, in
which he led his army without letting them take a rest so that they could
surprise their enemy, who expected to meet them in battle much later, is a
good example of the surprise attack. Other confrontations, especially in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, relied on siege tactics, but the two impor-
tant stages of engaging at a distance followed by close combat seem to have
otherwise been the common practice.
Traits of the Warrior
Having been professional warriors whose livelihood depended on perform-
ing duties in the service of a lord and having their status and income deter-
mined by how well they performed these duties, Japanese warriors devel-
oped a culture in which loyalty to one’s lord and parents and bravery in
battle were highly esteemed ideals. Those warriors who followed their lord’s
command without hesitation or were first to rush and engage in battle (sen-
jin) with the enemy were highly praised and sometimes well rewarded.
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