to one’s parents and lord, moral principles, and frugality, were more often
ignored than followed. The case of the forty-seven warriors of Akô who
took revenge for injustice incurred by their lord has always been a subject
of disagreement. Were they truly loyal retainers? As such, they were sup-
posed to act immediately and not wait two years before taking revenge.
Also, how is one to explain that out of hundreds of retainers only a small
fraction remained to carry out the act of justified revenge? Such questions,
together with the increasing number of samurai giving up their status to be-
come merchants, show that the way of the warrior often remained a mat-
ter of theory rather than practice.High Culture
Letters and arts have always been part of warrior culture, though reserved
mostly for warriors of higher status. Since the early ancient period when
leading warriors were military aristocrats, the study of Chinese classics and
poetry, as well as writing Japanese poetry, has been a way for warriors to
maintain their aristocratic identity. Similarly, acquisition of valuable ce-
ramics or patronage of craftsmen and artisans has been a warrior’s way of
expressing his refined manners and taste. Attention to high culture among
elite warriors reached its apex twice during the medieval period, a time
when, for the most part, warriors were more involved in warfare than they
were to be later. The third Ashikaga shôgun, Yoshimitsu (1358–1408), un-
der whose rule order prevailed in most of Japan, was an enthusiastic pa-
tron of the arts. His personal fondness for refined culture, which stood in
contrast to his character as a warrior, is perhaps the central reason for the
beginning of a period of flourishing arts and culture, commonly known as
the Kitayama epoch, named after the place in which Yoshimitsu built a Zen
temple, the Golden Pavilion.
The Kitayama epoch not only brought new life into existing aristo-
cratic culture, but also gave birth to new art forms such as Nô drama (a
form of theater based on dance, which developed from native and foreign
influence, sarugaku, and dengaku kyôgen theater) and Kyôgen theater
(“mad words,” comical or farcical skits that were first interluded with Nô,
but were later performed independently), after Yoshimitsu attended a Saru-
gaku performance (“monkey music,” whose characteristics are unknown,
but the name suggests monkeylike comical performance) by Kanami and
Zeami and became a generous patron of the performing arts. In the latter
part of the Kitayama epoch, during the rule of Yoshimitsu’s grandson,
Yoshimasa (1436–1490), there was a further development, with Yoshi-
masa’s patronage of linked verse poetry, the tea ceremony, and mono-
chrome painting.
After Yoshimasa relinquished the shôgunal post to his son in the midst196 Japan