taekwondowas agreed upon because of its resemblance to the more tradi-
tional art of t’aek’kyo ̆ n, which makes the nationalistic qualities of the art
obvious.
Vovinam (later renamed Viet Vo Dao) is a Vietnamese martial arts sys-
tem founded by Nguyen Loc (1912–1960) in the late 1930s. The system
was developed with both the practical intent of providing, after a short pe-
riod of study, an efficient means of self-defense, and establishing a focus for
national identity for the Vietnamese people. Founder Nguyen saw martial
arts as a vehicle for freeing Vietnam, under French rule from 1859 to 1954,
from outside domination. Thus, the traditional history maintains that at
the age of 26 he added elements of Chinese and Japanese systems to his
knowledge of indigenous Vietnamese arts to create an early version of Vov-
inam by at least 1938. Therefore, Vovinam, like taekwondo, is a modern
eclectic system created, at least in part, as a nationalistic response to polit-
ical conflict. At this time, the impulse to overthrow foreign domination
gained impetus across Vietnam. In 1940, Nguyen and his disciples were in-
vited to Hanoi to demonstrate Vovinam publicly, which led to an invitation
to teach the art at Hanoi Ecole Normal (Hanoi University of Education).
Slogans such as “Vietnamese practice Vietnamese martial arts” and “Not a
Vovinam disciple, not a Vietnamese patriot” attest to the fact that the sys-
tem succeeded in promoting nationalism. In 1940 and 1941, in this na-
tionalistic climate and on the heels of a Japanese invasion, Communist-led
revolts erupted in the south as Tay tribesmen rebelled in the north. At the
end of this period, Ho Chi Minh founded the nationalistic Vietminh to op-
pose both Japanese and French colonialism. At this time, Vovinam training
focused on endurance, speed, and strength with a course of study designed
to last about three months; the system also maintained a political orienta-
tion beyond simple physical improvement. Therefore, the art was sup-
pressed by both the French and the Japanese. By the time an agreement was
signed by France and the Vietminh that provided for the temporary parti-
tion of Vietnam at about the 17th parallel, with North Vietnam under con-
trol of the Communist Vietminh and South Vietnam under Nationalist con-
trol (1954), Nguyen Loc had immigrated to South Vietnam, opening a
Vovinam school in Saigon and others subsequently. Following the fall of
Saigon, teachers immigrated to Europe and the Americas. Vovinam cur-
rently exists as Vovinam-Viet Vo Dao, a contemporary martial art without
overt political focus.
Whether deployed as magic used to esoterically defeat an enemy or
utilized as a focus for nationalism, the symbolic functions of the martial
arts in political conflict seem to be a cross-cultural strategy. This facet of
combatives deserves further study.
Thomas A. Green
Political Conflict and the Martial Arts 441