Draeger declared that these activities cannot be correctly understood in
terms of the ultranationalistic militaristic training of the 1930s and 1940s.
He asserted that martial arts whose name end with the suffix -jutsu(e.g.,
jûjutsu, kenjutsu) are combative systems for self-protection, while those
whose names end with the suffix -dô(e.g., jûdô, kendô) are spiritual sys-
tems for self-perfection (Draeger 1973–1974, vol. 2: 19). The former pri-
marily emphasize combat, followed by discipline and, lastly, morals, while
the latter are chiefly concerned with morals, followed by discipline and aes-
thetic form (Draeger 1973–1974, vol. 1: 36). In spite of their rigid reduc-
tionism, these definitions have been widely adopted by martial art enthusi-
asts outside of Japan and even by some within Japan. Indeed, in 1987 the
Japanese Budô Association (Nihon Budô Kyôgikai [68]) promulgated a
Budô Charter (kenshô [69]) that defines martial arts in a teleological man-
ner reminiscent of Draeger as a unique cultural tradition that has “pro-
gressed from techniques to ways” (jutsu kara dô ni hatten shita [70]).
Regardless of how widely disseminated this kind of lexicographical
distinction between -jutsu and -dô has become, it must be emphasized that
there simply is no historical evidence for it. Martial art names ending in the
- dôsuffix have a long linguistic history. For example, the first documented
appearance of the words budô, kendô,and jûdôoccurred about 1200,
1630, and 1760 respectively (see Nakamura 1994, 13; Tominaga 1972, 19;
Oimatsu 1982, 209). Until the 1910s, these terms were used interchange-
ably with a wide variety of other names, some ending in the -jutsusuffix
and some not, with no generally agreed-upon difference in denotation or
religious connotations. It was not until the 1920s and 1930s that martial
art names became standardized in public discourse as “something-dô,” and
they did so precisely because of their association with the militaristic ide-
ology that Draeger excludes from consideration. Draeger’s definitions ig-
nore the fact that one of the goals of this ideological discourse was to dis-
guise its coercive agenda by presenting budô primarily as a spiritual
endeavor, distinct from either pure combat techniques or recreational
sports. In this respect, these definitions not only depart from linguistic ev-
idence but also obfuscate crucial developments in Japanese martial art his-
tory. If or how any martial arts constituted “spiritual systems for self-per-
fection” prior to the advent of government-sponsored programs of
nationalistic spiritual education is the issue that must now be considered.
Religion and Martial Arts before 1868
Prior to 1868 the kind of nationwide uniformity achieved by the Ministry
of Education and Dainippon Butokukai was impossible. No governmental,
religious, or other authorities ever possessed sufficient power to impose
standardized definitions, concepts, or practices on the entire population of
Religion and Spiritual Development: Japan 485