was therefore natural that the victory of reform in the Church should lead straight on to a violent
conflict between Emperor and Pope.
Priests had formed a separate and powerful caste in Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia, but not in
Greece or Rome. In the primitive Christian Church, the distinction between clergy and laity arose
gradually; when we read of "bishops" in the New Testament, the word does not mean what it has
come to mean to us. The separation of the clergy from the rest of the population had two aspects,
one doctrinal, the other political; the political aspect depended upon the doctrinal. The clergy
possessed certain miraculous powers, especially in connection with the sacraments--except
baptism, which could be performed by laymen. Without the help of the clergy, marriage,
absolution, and extreme unction were impossible. Even more important, in the Middle Ages, was
transubstantiation: only a priest could perform the miracle of the mass. It was not until the
eleventh century, in 1079, that the doctrine of transubstantiation became an article of faith, though
it had been generally believed for a long time.
Owing to their miraculous powers, priests could determine whether a man should spend eternity in
heaven or in hell. If he died while excommunicate, he went to hell; if he died after priests had
performed all the proper ceremonies, he would ultimately go to heaven provided he had duly
repented and confessed. Before going to heaven, however, he would have to spend some time--
perhaps a very long time--suffering the pains of purgatory. Priests could shorten this time by
saying masses for his soul, which they were willing to do for a suitable money payment.
All this, it must be understood, was genuinely and firmly believed both by priests and by laity; it
was not merely a creed officially professed. Over and over again, the miraculous powers of the
clergy gave them the victory over powerful princes at the head of their armies. This power,
however, was limited in two ways: by reckless outbreaks of passion on the part of furious laymen,
and by divisions among the clergy. The inhabitants of Rome, until the time of Gregory VII,
showed little respect for the person of the Pope. They would kidnap him, imprison him, poison
him, or fight against him, whenever their turbulent factional strife tempted them to such action.
How is this compatible with their beliefs? Partly, no doubt, the explanation lies in mere lack of
self-control; partly, however, in the