58 CHAPTER 2
conducted largely by measuring the brain’s electrical activity, has demonstrated that
there are two general types of human emotions, approach emotions and withdrawal
emotions, each relying on its own system in the brain. Approach emotions are posi-
tive emotions, such as love and happiness, and tend to activate the left frontal lobe
more than the right. Withdrawal emotions are negative emotions, such as fear and
sadness, and tend to activate the right frontal lobe more than the left (Davidson,
1992a, 1992b, 1993, 1998, 2002; Davidson et al., 2000; Lang, 1995). Researchers
have also found that people who generally have more activation in the left frontal
lobe tend to be more optimistic than people who generally have more activation in
the right. This is important because depression has been associated with relatively
less activity in the left frontal lobe (Davidson, 1993, 1994a, 1998; Davidson et al.,
1999). As a result of genetics, learning, or (most likely) some combination of the
two, some people are temperamentally more likely to experience positive (approach)
emotions, whereas others are more likely to experience negative (withdrawal) emo-
tions (Fox et al., 2005; Rettew & McKee, 2005).
Joseph LeDoux (1996) has further suggested that different brain systems
contribute to different emotions. This is important for psychopathology and its
treatment because some of these systems lie outside of awareness and are not easy
to control voluntarily. In contrast, other brain systems rely on conscious interpre-
tation of stimuli or events, and hence might be more easily targeted during psycho-
therapy. In particular, LeDoux argues that some of the brain systems that underlie
emotions work like refl exes, independent of conscious thought or interpretation.
For example, fear involves activation of the amygdala, but not necessarily any
cognitive interpretation of the stimulus (you become afraid before you’ve thought
through the situation). Other emotions, such as guilt, depend on such cognitive
processes. Why the difference? In our evolutionary past, fear may have been partic-
ularly important to survival, signaling the presence of an immediate danger—and
hence it was advantageous to have a very rapidly acting brain system for identify-
ing to-be-feared objects. Guilt is different; not only may the consequences often be
less severe that those of fear-inducing events, but also the consequences of guilt-
inducing events may not be as immediate as the threats that evoke fear—you can
take your time responding to what made you feel guilty, wallowing in your guilt at
your leisure.Temperament
Temperament is closely related to emotion: Temperament refers to the various
aspects of personality that refl ect a person’s typical emotional state and emotional
reactivity (including the speed and strength of reactions to stimuli). Temperament
is in large part innate, and it infl uences behavior in early childhood and even in
infancy. Temperament is of interest in the study of psychological disorders for two
reasons (Nigg, 2006): First, it may be part of the neurological vulnerability for
certain disorders; having a particular temperament may make a person especially
vulnerable to certain psychological disorders, even at an early age. For instance,
people who are temperamentally more emotionally reactive are more likely to de-
velop psychological disorders related to high levels of anxiety. Second, it is possible
that in some cases a psychological disorder is simply an extreme form of a normal
variation in temperament. For instance, some researchers argue that social phobia
is on a continuum with shyness but is an extreme form of it; shyness involves with-
drawal emotions and lack of sociability, and is viewed as a temperament (Schneider
et al., 2002).
The Beale women had unusually reactive temperaments—reacting strongly to
stimuli. One or the other of them would respond to a neutral or offhand remark
with emotion that was out of proportion: hot anger, bubbling joy, or snapping ir-
ritability. It’s not a coincidence that mother and daughter seemed similar in this
respect. Much evidence indicates that genes contribute strongly to temperament
(Gillespie et al., 2003); in fact, some researchers report that genes account for aboutFear involves a refl exive activation of the
amygdala, not necessarily accompanied by any
cognitive interpretation of the stimulus. Other
emotions, such as guilt, depend on such inter-
pretation. The ease of treating an emotional
problem may be related to the nature of the
underlying mechanism that gives rise to
the experience of that emotion.Brian Kenney/OSF/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
Temperament
The various aspects of personality that
refl ect a person’s typical emotional state and
emotional reactivity (including the speed
and strength of reactions to stimuli).P SN