402 CHAPTER 9
P SNP SNTargeting Social Factors
In addition to the neurological and psychological factors that contribute to stim-
ulant abuse and dependence, various social factors can promote substance use,
abuse and dependence. Specifi c negative patterns of family interactions and peer
relations are associated with a higher risk of a subsequent substance use disorder.
In addition, perceived social norms play a role, and less directly, sociocultural
factors create a backdrop that makes some people more vulnerable to stimulant
abuse and dependence, as well as to substance use disorders in general. Let’s ex-
amine these social factors in more detail.Family Relations
Research grounded in the stage theory (introduced earlier in this chapter), found that
teenagers whose drug use progressed from marijuana to other illegal substances did
not have close relationships with their parents (Andrews et al., 1991). However, this
fi nding is only a correlation; it could be that the factors that led to drug abuse also
soured relationships between teenager and parents or that bad relationships contributed
to drug abuse—or that some third factor, such as a particular temperament, contrib-
uted to both factors. In addition, many studies have found that adolescents who have
dysfunctional family interactions (for example, have experienced child abuse, violence in
the household, or parental substance abuse) are more likely to use and abuse substances
(Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Hesselbrock, 1986; Kilpatrick et al., 2000).Peers
Friends do things together; they often have common views or activities they enjoy.
It’s not surprising, then, that peers’ substance use can infl uence an individual’s
substance use and abuse (Brewer et al., 1998). The infl uence of peers can also
help explain fi ndings that support the gateway hypothesis about increasing drug
use. Once a (susceptible) individual repeatedly uses an illicit entry drug, such as
marijuana, he or she is then more likely to spend time with peers who also use this
drug and become socialized into a subculture favorable to drug use. The person
who sells the marijuana is also likely to sell harder drugs, such as cocaine, provid-
ing an opportunity to experiment with harder drugs (Hall & Lynskey, 2005).Norms and Perceived Norms
Societies specify norms of behavior, which include the degree to which psychoactive
substances can be taken without being considered abuse. The Beatles changed social
norms, at least for a while, among some portions of the population, through their pub-
lic association with drugs: their arrests for possession of illegal drugs, Paul McCartney’s
admission that he used LSD, and song lyrics referring to drug use, such as “I get high
with a little help from my friends” from Sgt. Pepper. Many fans perceived that drug
use was “in,” that they would not be “hip” unless they used drugs too.
This observation highlights an important fact about social norms: It’s a per-
son’s perception of the norms that is the key, not the actual social norms. Percep-
tions of social norms about drug use clearly affect drug use; that is, when people
think that “everyone” in their school, neighborhood, social class, or clique uses
drugs, they are more likely to use drugs themselves. In contrast, people who think
that only a minority of their classmates, neighbors, or friends use drugs will be less
likely to use drugs. The extent of the group’s actual drug use is less important than
what the individual perceives it to be.
Moreover, perceived norms can be distorted. Specifi cally, people tend to notice
the behavior of others who are using substances (e.g., “They were high as kites”)
more than they do the behavior of those who do not use substances or use them
only moderately (Perkins, 1997). This distortion may lead to an incorrect perception
about the social norm of substance use—that it is more common than it actually is.
This mistaken perception in turn can lead individuals to calibrate their substance
use to the inaccurate norm and use drugs more heavily than the true norm.