Abnormal Psychology

Gender and Sexual Disorders 479

with gender identity disorder, however, do not have as high an activity level as their

counterparts without the disorder. Similarly, biological girls with gender identity

disorder are more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play than are other girls

(Bates, Bentler, & Thompson, 1973, 1979; Zucker & Bradley, 1995). Both boys

and girls with gender identity disorder are less likely to play with same-sex peers;

instead, they seek out, feel more comfortable with, and feel themselves to be more

similar to children of the other sex (Green, 1974, 1987). Of course, such fi ndings

should be interpreted with caution, for two reasons: (1) These very characteristics

are part of the diagnostic criteria for gender identity disorder in children, so it is

not at all surprising that these behaviors are correlated with having the disorder;

(2) a diagnosis of gender identity disorder in childhood does not usually persist into

adulthood. Thus, beyond symptoms that are part of the criteria for gender identity

disorder, no psychological factors are clearly associated with the disorder.

Social Factors: Responses From Others

Social factors may be associated with gender identity disorder, but such factors

are unlikely to be suffi cient to cause the disorder (Bradley & Zucker, 1997; Di

Ceglie, 2000). Nevertheless, one study found that mothers of boys with gender

identity disorder remarked on their sons’ physical beauty, which may have led

the mothers to interact differently with these sons, treating them more as girls

(Zucker et al., 1993). As shown in Figure 11.1(a), college students rated photo-

graphs of boys with gender identity disorder as cuter and prettier than photos of

boys without the disorder; in contrast, Figure 11.1(b) shows that girls with gen-

der identity disorder were rated as less attractive than girls who did not have the

disorder (Zucker et al., 1993). These contrasting ratings of physical appearance

may refl ect the prenatal infl uence of hormones: Biological boys may have been ex-

posed to more female hormones in the womb, leading to the feminization of their

facial features; conversely, biological girls may have been exposed to more male

hormones in the womb, leading to the masculinization of their facial features. In

turn, the feminized or masculinized facial features may lead others to interact dif-

ferently with people who then develop this disorder.

P S

N

Figure 11.1

11.1 • Physical Attractiveness Ratings of Children With Gender Identity Disorder

(a) Viewing photographs, college students rated boys with gender identity disorder as more attractive

than boys without this disorder. (b) Girls with gender identity disorder were considered to be less

attractive than girls who did not have the disorder (Zucker et al., 1993).

Source: Adapted from Zucker & Bradley, 1995.

g

11 1 Ph i l Att ti R ti f Child With G d Id tit Di d

1

2

3

4

5

Attractiveness rating

Attractive Beautiful Cute Handsome Pretty

Boys with gender

identity disorder

Controls

(a) Physical attractiveness of boys

1

2

3

4

5

Attractiveness rating

(b) Physical attractiveness of girls

Attractive Beautiful Cute Pretty

Girls with gender

identity disorder

Controls