Glossary G7
Negative reinforcement The type of
reinforcement that occurs when an
aversive or uncomfortable stimulus is
removedafter a behavior, which makes
that behavior more likely to be produced
again in the future.
Negative symptoms Symptoms of
schizophrenia that are marked by the
absenceor reduction of normal mental
processes, mental contents, or behaviors.
Neurofi brillary tangles The mass created by
tau proteins that become twisted together
and destroy the microtubules, leaving the
neuron without a distribution system for
nutrients.
Neuromodulators Chemicals that modulate
(alter) the way neurotransmitters affect
the receiving neuron. Some chemicals that
act as neurotransmitters can also act as
neuromodulators in certain circumstances,
and vice versa.
Neurons Brain cells that process
information related to physical, mental,
and emotional functioning.
Neuropsychological testing The
employment of assessment techniques
that use behavioral responses to test items
in order to draw inferences about brain
functioning.
Neuropsychosocial approach The view
that a psychological disorder arises from
the combined infl uences of neurological,
psychological, and social factors—which
affect and are affected by one another
through feedback loops.
Neurosis According to psychoanalytic
theory, a pattern of thoughts, feelings,
or behavior that expresses an unresolved
confl ict between the ego and the id or
between the ego and the superego.
Neurotransmitters Chemicals that are
released at the terminal buttons and cross
the synaptic cleft.
° O °Objectifi cation theory The theory that girls
learn to consider their bodies as objects
and commodities.
Observational learning The process of
learning through watching what happens
to others; also referred to as modeling.
Obsessions Thoughts, impulses, or images
that persist or recur, are intrusive—and
therefore diffi cult to ignore—and are
inappropriate to the situation.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) The
anxiety disorder characterized by one
or more obsessions, which may occur
together with compulsions.
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder A
personality disorder characterized by
preoccupations with perfectionism,
orderliness, and self-control as well as low
levels of fl exibility and effi ciency.
Operant conditioning A type of learning in
which the likelihood that a behavior will
be repeated depends on the consequences
associated with the behavior.
Oppositional defi ant disorder A
psychological disorder that typically
arises in childhood or adolescence and
is characterized by overt disobedience,
hostility, defi ance, and negativity toward
people in authority.
Outpatient treatment Treatment that does
not involve an overnight stay in a hospital.° P °
Pain disorder A somatoform disorder
that occurs when psychological factors
signifi cantly affect the onset, severity, or
maintenance of signifi cant pain.
Panic An extreme sense (or fear) of
imminent doom, together with an extreme
stress response.
Panic attack A specifi c period of intense
dread, fear, or a sense of imminent doom,
accompanied by physical symptoms of
a pounding heart, shortness of breath,
shakiness, and sweating.
Panic disorder The anxiety disorder
characterized by frequent, unexpected
panic attacks, along with fear of further
attacks and possible restrictions of
behavior in order to prevent such attacks.
Paradoxical intention A systems therapy
technique in which the therapist suggests
that the problem behavior be allowed to
continue or even increase in intensity or
frequency.
Paranoid personality disorder A personality
disorder characterized by persistent and
pervasive mistrust and suspiciousness,
accompanied by a bias to interpret other
people’s motives as hostile.
Paranoid schizophrenia The subtype
of schizophrenia characterized by the
presence of delusions and auditory
hallucinations that are limited to specifi c
topics that have a coherent paranoid or
grandiose theme.
Paraphilia A sexual disorder characterized
by deviant fantasies, objects, or behaviors
that play a role in sexual arousal.Partial cases The designation given to
cases in which patients have symptoms
that meet only some of the necessary
criteria, but not enough symptoms to
meet all the criteria for the diagnosis of a
disorder.Partial hospitalization Treatment is
provided at a hospital or other facility, but
the patient does not sleep there.
Pedophilia A paraphilia characterized
by recurrent sexually arousing fantasies,
sexual urges, or behaviors involving a child
who has not yet gone through puberty
(typically aged 13 or younger).Personality Enduring traits and
characteristics that lead a person to behave
in relatively predictable ways across a
range of situations.
Personality disorders A category of
psychological disorders characterized by
a pattern of infl exible and maladaptive
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that arise
across a range of situations and lead to
distress or dysfunction.
Pervasive developmental disorders A set
of developmental disorders that have in
common severe defi cits in communication
and in social interaction skills and may
also involve stereotyped behaviors and
narrow interests.
Phenotype The sum of an organism’s
observable traits.Phobia An exaggerated fear of an object
or a situation, together with an extreme
avoidance of the object or situation.
Phototherapy Treatment for depression
that uses full-spectrum lights; also called
light-box therapy.
Placebo effect A positive effect of a
medically inert substance or procedure.Polysubstance abuse A behavior pattern of
abusing more than one substance.
Population The complete set of possible
relevant participants.
Positive punishment The type of
punishment that takes place when a
behavior is followed by an undesirable
consequence, which makes the behavior
less likely to recur.Positive reinforcement The type of
reinforcement that occurs when a desired
reinforcer is received after a behavior,
which makes the behavior more likely to
occur again in the future.
Positive symptoms Symptoms of
schizophrenia that are marked by the