Green marketing 737
results, and the results produced in one study
have been repeatedly contradicted in another.’
Other segmentation attempts have used envi-
ronmental attitudes, environmental knowl-
edge, level of education, social consciousness or
related behaviours. However, once again
‘results of these studies were frequently incon-
clusive and sometimes contradictory’ (Kil-
bourne and Beckmann, 1998).
The difficulties in isolating green consumer
behaviour reflect several factors:
It overlooks the point made by Kardash (1974)
that all consumers (barring a few who enjoy
contrariness for its own sake) are ‘green
consumers’ in that, faced with a choice
between two products that are identical in all
respects except that one is superior in terms
of its eco-performance, they would
differentiate in terms of the environmentally
superior product.
By attempting to relate a consumer’s
environmental concern to purchases, marketing
researchers may be looking in the wrong place.
Many of the most significant contributions that
consumers can make towards environmental
quality come in product use, maintenance and
disposal, or in delaying or avoiding a purchase
through a ‘make do and mend’ mentality.
Environmental improvements in products are
often entangled with economic or technical
benefits. Therefore, drivers may choose
lead-free fuel for environmental or economic
reasons, or people may choose organic food
for reasons of environmental concern,
personal health concern or simply for the taste
benefits.
Different answers are achieved depending on
what is defined as constituting green consumer
behaviour, and whether the environmental
issues that it is linked to are defined in general
or specific terms. General environmental
concern is often measured by researchers, but
it is less easily related to products than specific
environmental issues (such as concern for
dolphins translating into the purchase of
rod-and-line caught tuna fish).
Perhaps the solution to understanding green
purchasing behaviour is to try and understand
the purchase rather than the purchaser. If we
accept Kardash’s proposal that, all other things
being equal, most customers would differ-
entiate in favour of greener products, then
understanding environmental purchasing
behaviour (and often the lack of it) is assisted
by looking at the extent to which other things
are not ‘equal’. Many green purchases involve
some form of compromise over conventional
purchases. The compromise can take a variety
of forms, including: Paying a green premium. This can be imposed
by economic necessity where improving
eco-performance increases production costs.
Alternatively, it can be created by marketing
strategies in which greener products aimed at
green market niches are given a premium price
irrespective of production costs.
Accepting a lower level of technical
performance in exchange for improved
eco-performance (e.g. rechargeable batteries
provide less power but are ultimately cheaper
and greener).
Travelling to non-standard distribution outlets
(e.g. Ecover detergents were originally
marketed through health food shops).Where there is a compromise involved in
making a greener purchase, a key factor which
will determine whether or not this is acceptable
to customers is the confidence they have in the
environmental benefits involved. Customers
will need to be confident that: the environmental issue(s) involved are real
problems;
the company’s market offering has improved
eco-performance compared to competitor or
previous offerings;
purchasing the product will make some sort of
material difference.Analysing green purchases in terms of the
compromises and confidence involved can help